Greta Jimenez
India is one of the world's most polluted countries, with 21 of the top 30 polluted cities in the world in 2019. The country's rapid urbanisation, population growth, industrialisation, and anthropogenic activities have led to a consistent increase in energy consumption and a subsequent degradation of air quality in its cities. The main causes of urban air pollution in India include industrial and vehicular emissions, construction dust, waste burning, and the use of wood and dung for cooking and heating.
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What You'll Learn
Vehicular emissions
The problem is exacerbated by the fact that over 97% of the estimated emissions from on-road transportation in India are contributed by vehicles, compared to other modes of transport. This is due to the high population density and rapid urbanization in Indian cities, which leads to severe traffic congestion. The increase in the number of vehicles per kilometre of available roads results in a higher concentration of vehicular emissions in the atmosphere.
The impact of vehicular emissions on air quality is particularly concerning in urban areas, where the high density of vehicles leads to a higher concentration of pollutants. Additionally, the expansion of urban areas due to ongoing urbanization alters the surface and boundary layer atmospheric properties, further contributing to climate change and air pollution. The elevated levels of pollutants from vehicles, such as NO2 and PM2.5, pose significant risks to the health of urban residents.
The health effects of exposure to particulate matter, especially PM2.5, are well-documented. As fine and ultrafine particulate matter can penetrate deep into the human body, they can cause respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and premature death. In India, exposure to outdoor PM2.5 concentration is responsible for about 56% of the over 1.1 million premature deaths attributed to air pollution each year.
To address the issue of vehicular emissions and improve air quality, India has launched initiatives such as the National Clean Air Program, which aims to reduce particulate matter pollution by 20-30% by 2024. However, the progress made so far has been inconsistent, and achieving the desired results by the target year will require additional efforts and effective measures.
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Industrial emissions
The burning of low-quality fuel in Indian cities, for instance, results in SO2 emissions. Additionally, emissions from crude oil wells and flared natural gas also contribute to air pollution. Certain industries, such as open coal mining, fluoride mining, limestone mining, thermal power plants, and the cement industry, are significant sources of air pollution. The combustion of fossil fuels and industrial processes release harmful pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter, which have detrimental effects on human health and the environment.
The industrial sector in India often relies on inefficient and outdated technologies, which leads to higher emissions compared to their counterparts in developed countries. The lack of stringent emission control regulations and enforcement of existing standards further exacerbates the problem. Additionally, the rapid industrialization and urbanization in India contribute to the increasing number of vehicles, power plants, and factories, all of which emit pollutants into the atmosphere.
Moreover, industrial activities generate a significant amount of waste, including solid waste and wastewater. Improper waste management practices, such as open dumping and burning of municipal solid waste, release toxic substances into the air. Methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) are among the major pollutants released from landfills and wastewater treatment plants, respectively. The open burning of waste, including plastic, produces additional toxic and carcinogenic emissions, posing grave health risks to nearby populations.
To address the issue of industrial air pollution in India, it is imperative to implement stricter emission standards, promote the adoption of cleaner technologies, and improve waste management practices. By transitioning to cleaner and more sustainable industrial practices, India can significantly improve its air quality and safeguard the health and well-being of its citizens.
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Fuel adulteration
However, fuel adulteration has severe consequences for air quality and public health. The use of adulterated fuel blends increases tailpipe emissions of harmful pollutants, including hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). The higher sulfur content of kerosene, for instance, leads to higher emissions of HC, CO, and PM, even from cars equipped with catalytic converters. Additionally, unregulated air toxin emissions, such as benzene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are well-known carcinogens.
The problem of fuel adulteration is exacerbated by lax fuel quality standards and inadequate testing methods. Oil companies often shirk responsibility for the quality of their fuel, and the penalties for adulteration are weak. The profits from adulteration are significant, with even a small amount of adulteration in a large diesel tanker resulting in attractive gains. For example, a 12,000-litre diesel tanker contaminated with just 5% kerosene can yield a profit of Rs 7,200. The use of advanced testing methods, such as gas chromatography, has revealed dramatic variations in fuel quality, but these standards are often not checked by the relevant authorities.
The Indian government has taken some steps to address the issue of fuel adulteration. In 2002, the Supreme Court directed the Union of India to introduce "clean non-adulterable fuel" in critically polluted cities across the country. However, the overall response to fuel adulteration has been lacklustre, with policy changes and enforcement measures failing to keep pace with the growing problem. As a result, air pollution in Indian cities continues to worsen, posing significant risks to the health and well-being of urban residents.
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Biomass burning
India's air pollution challenge spans both rural and urban areas. In 2019, India had 21 of the world's 30 most polluted cities. A study based on 2016 data found that at least 140 million people in India breathe air that is 10 times or more over the WHO safe limit. The main contributors to India's particulate air pollution include industrial and vehicular emissions, construction dust and debris, dependence on thermal power for electricity, waste burning, and the use of wood and dung for cooking and heating.
Biomass-burning sources control ambient particulate matter, but traffic and industrial sources control volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions and secondary-pollutant formation during extreme pollution events. The combustion of low-quality fuel in Indian cities causes SO2 emissions. The burning of fresh paddy residue, as well as residential heating and waste burning, contribute the most to observed PM10 levels (25%) and PM2.5 levels (23%). Fuel wood and biomass burning is the primary reason for the near-permanent haze and smoke observed above rural and urban India. Fuelwood and biomass cakes are used for cooking and general heating needs. These are burnt in cookstoves known as "chulha" in some parts of India. These cookstoves are present in over 100 million Indian households and are used two to three times a day. Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim that 300,000 to 400,000 people die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning in India due to biomass burning and the use of chulhas. The carbon-containing gases released from biomass fuels are many times more reactive than cleaner fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas.
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Population growth
India's rapid population growth and urbanisation are major contributors to the country's air pollution crisis. With a projected 53% of the population living in urban areas by 2050, India's cities are facing critical challenges in terms of climate action and sustainable development. The increasing urban population, coupled with industrialisation and population growth, is causing a significant rise in air pollution levels, which poses a severe threat to human health.
The growing urban population is leading to an increase in vehicular traffic, which in turn increases pollutant emissions and aerosol loads in the atmosphere. In addition, the lack of adequate transportation management and suitable roads in rapidly growing cities results in congested roads, reducing average vehicular speed and further adding to vehicular emissions. The combustion of low-quality fuel in Indian cities also causes SO2 emissions, and vehicles running on adulterated fuel blends—a common occurrence due to financial incentives—release higher levels of harmful pollutants.
The impact of the growing population on air pollution extends beyond vehicular emissions. The change in land use patterns due to urbanisation affects the regional climate, altering atmospheric properties. This leads to increased anthropogenic emissions, higher temperatures, and more frequent heatwaves, all of which have negative health consequences for residents.
Furthermore, the expanding urban areas are more vulnerable to extreme climate events such as high rainfall, floods, and droughts, which pose additional health risks to the population. The increasing population density also intensifies human activities, further fuelling the problem by increasing emissions of pollutants.
The Indian government has recognised the urgency of addressing air pollution and has set aside funding to tackle the issue. However, as India continues to urbanise and its population grows, coordinated action across jurisdictions and effective land management strategies are essential to mitigate the health and economic impacts of air pollution.
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Frequently asked questions
There are several causes of urban air pollution in India, including industrial and vehicular emissions, construction dust and debris, and the burning of wood and biomass for cooking and heating.
Urban air pollution is a serious health risk, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and contributing to premature deaths. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) has been identified as a major cause of premature deaths in urban environments.
Urbanization increases energy consumption, leading to higher emissions and degraded air quality in Indian cities. The change in land use patterns due to urbanization also affects the regional climate and contributes to rising temperatures and frequent heat waves, further intensifying air pollution.
The Indian government has launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) with the ambitious goal of reducing PM2.5 pollution substantially by 2024. However, progress has been inconsistent and has fallen short of achieving the desired results.
Air pollution has significant economic impacts in India. It was estimated that achieving safe air quality levels in 2019 would have increased India's GDP by $95 billion due to improved productivity, reduced absenteeism, and lower premature death rates.
