Air Pollution: A Global Concern Brought To Light

Air pollution has become a pressing global issue, with indoor and outdoor air pollution causing around 6.7 million premature deaths annually. It is the fourth-largest risk factor for early death, contributing to respiratory and other diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 99% of people breathe air that exceeds the recommended limits for pollutants, with low- and middle-income countries suffering the highest exposures. The primary sources of human-made air pollution are vehicle emissions, fuel oils, natural gas, industrial processes, and the combustion of fossil fuels. These activities release harmful pollutants such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. The effects of air pollution are wide-ranging, impacting both human health and the environment. To address this issue, many countries have implemented regulations and strategies, such as the Clean Air Act in the United States, to reduce emissions and mitigate the adverse effects of air pollution on public health and the planet.

The Industrial Revolution

One of the key factors contributing to air pollution during the Industrial Revolution was the widespread use of coal. Coal-powered machinery and the burning of coal for heat led to a sharp increase in carbon emissions. The combustion of coal released unprecedented levels of primary pollutants into the atmosphere, causing a dramatic increase in air pollution. This was particularly evident in industrial cities like London and Manchester, where the concentration of suspended particulate matter rose significantly during this period.

The shift to a manufacturing-based economy further exacerbated air pollution. The rise of factories and mass production increased the demand for energy, leading to a reliance on fossil fuels such as coal and oil. This resulted in higher carbon emissions and harmful environmental pollution. The manufacturing of metals and basic chemicals also contributed to air and water pollution.

In addition to the pollution from industrial sources, waste from domestic sources also played a significant role. The growing population in urban areas meant an increase in household emissions from burning coal for heating and cooking. Poor sanitation and refuse collection further added to the problem, impacting the health of those living in close proximity to industrial sources, with air pollution causing respiratory illnesses and higher death rates.

Fossil fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits hazardous air pollutants, including nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and mercury. These pollutants contribute to acid rain, eutrophication, crop and forest damage, and harm to wildlife. The health consequences of air pollution from fossil fuels are significant, including respiratory illnesses, asthma, cancer, heart disease, and other chronic conditions. It particularly affects children, the elderly, low-income communities, and people of colour.

Oil spills, a consequence of fossil fuel extraction, transportation, and refining, have devastating impacts on marine ecosystems, killing wildlife, destroying habitats, and polluting the food chain. The largest oil spill in history, the 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon spill, resulted in 134 million gallons of oil being released into the Gulf of Mexico, causing immense environmental damage and costing BP $65 billion in penalties and cleanup costs.

A recent study published in Environmental Research highlights the deadly impact of fossil fuel air pollution, finding that it is responsible for approximately 8.7 million deaths globally in 2018, a figure more than twice that of previous estimates. This figure does not even include deaths caused by long-term exposure to ozone air pollution or smog, which are also driven by fossil fuel combustion.

Despite the urgent need for a transition to renewable energy, fossil fuel companies continue to be major polluters. In 2019, BP spent millions on an advertising campaign promoting its low-carbon energy and cleaner natural gas initiatives, while over 96% of its annual expenditure remained focused on oil and gas. This highlights the disconnect between the public image portrayed by fossil fuel companies and the reality of their contribution to air pollution and climate change.

Health risks

Air pollution is the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical, or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. It refers to the presence of one or more contaminants in the atmosphere, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour, in quantities that can be harmful to human health.

Air pollution can affect almost every organ in the body. The main pathway of exposure is through the respiratory tract, but some pollutants are small enough to penetrate the bloodstream via the lungs and circulate throughout the body, leading to systemic inflammation and carcinogenicity.

Respiratory Problems

Air pollution can cause or worsen respiratory problems. Fine particulate matter, such as soot, can irritate the eyes and throat and damage the lungs, especially in children, the elderly, and people who work or exercise outdoors. Higher levels of air pollution are associated with increased short-term respiratory infections, aggravated asthma, and chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Children living near busy roads or in high ozone communities are more likely to develop asthma.

Cardiovascular Issues

Air pollution has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular problems, including heart disease and reduced lung function. Fine particulate matter can impair blood vessel function and speed up calcification in arteries. Exposure to air pollutants can also lead to increased emergency department visits and hospital admissions for respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses.

Cancer

In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization (WHO) classified air pollution as a human carcinogen. Studies have found links between air pollution and lung cancer, breast cancer, and increased risks of colorectal and prostate cancers. Occupational exposure to benzene, a component of gasoline, is associated with leukemia and non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma.

Neurological Impacts

There is growing evidence that air pollution may affect neurological development in children, with potential behavioural problems, learning deficits, and lowered IQ. Air pollution has also been linked to cognitive impairment and neurological diseases in adults.

Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes

Air pollution exposure during pregnancy may increase the risk of adverse outcomes, including low birth weight, pre-term birth, and small gestational age. Maternal exposure to air pollution is also associated with dangerous changes in blood pressure, which can lead to maternal and fetal illness and death.

Other Health Risks

Air pollution has been linked to an increased risk of diabetes, stroke, and various other diseases. It can also cause systemic inflammation and immunosuppression, affecting multiple organs in the body.

Overall, air pollution poses a significant threat to public health, and the levels of exposure and individual susceptibility factors determine the specific health risks and outcomes.

Environmental justice

The movement for environmental justice has been gaining momentum since the 1970s, driven by the legal recognition of its importance and the understanding that the environment is a critical front in the broader struggle for justice. The environmental justice movement has been championed by Black people, Latines, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, and Indigenous People, who are often disproportionately affected by environmental issues.

One of the key issues addressed by environmental justice advocates is the inequitable distribution of risks associated with air pollution and climate change. Studies have shown that racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities exist in exposure to air pollution, with communities of colour and low-income communities bearing a greater burden. For example, people of colour are 1.5 times more likely to live in areas with poor air quality, and they also face higher health risks, such as respiratory and cardiovascular issues, reproductive harm, and increased rates of cancer, premature births, and early death.

Additionally, environmental justice seeks to address the historical discrimination that has contributed to underserved communities' increased vulnerability to environmental crises. This includes underinvestment in communities of colour and marginalized groups, as well as injustices in housing, education, employment, and healthcare. Environmental racism, where polluting facilities and industrial sites are disproportionately located in or near minority communities, is another critical issue tackled by environmental justice advocates.

To achieve environmental justice, it is essential to involve communities in decision-making processes that affect their environment. This includes providing access to clear and transparent information about environmental risks and possible mitigation measures. Implementing inclusive and fair policies that promote well-being for both people and the planet is also crucial. Environmental justice aims to hold governments and companies accountable for their actions and ensure that environmental regulations are enforced to protect the most vulnerable communities.

Clean Air Acts

The Clean Air Act (CAA) is the primary federal air quality law in the United States. It was initially enacted in 1963 and has been amended many times since, making it one of the country's first and most influential modern environmental laws. The Act defines the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) responsibilities for protecting and improving the nation's air quality and the stratospheric ozone layer.

The Clean Air Act is administered by the EPA in coordination with state, local, and tribal governments. The EPA develops extensive administrative regulations to carry out the law's mandates, and associated regulatory programs implement these regulations. The Act calls for state, local, tribal, and federal governments to work in partnership to clean the air and solve multiple air pollution problems through programs based on the latest science and technology information.

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) program is one of the most important regulatory programs under the Clean Air Act. It sets standards for concentrations of certain pollutants in outdoor air, such as ground-level ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5), lead (Pb), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The goal of the Act was to set and achieve NAAQS in every state by 1975 to address the public health and welfare risks posed by certain widespread air pollutants.

The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments were revised to curb four major threats to the environment and the health of Americans: acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic air emissions, and stratospheric ozone depletion. These amendments also established a national operating permits program and strengthened enforcement to ensure better compliance with the Act. The CAA ozone program, added by the 1990 Amendments, is a technology transition program intended to phase out the use of chemicals that harm the ozone layer.

Since 1990, there has been approximately a 50% decline in emissions of key air pollutants due to actions to implement the Clean Air Act, preventing hundreds of thousands of cases of serious health effects each year. The EPA has also helped states meet standards for common pollutants by issuing federal emissions standards for new motor vehicles, non-road engines, and new industrial equipment.

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