Air Pollution In The Swinging Sixties: Was It Bad?

The 1960s marked a turning point in public awareness about environmental issues, with air pollution becoming an impassioned topic. While the first wave of conservationist ideas in the US centred on wilderness preservation, the environmental movement of the mid-1960s and early 1970s focused on air and water pollution. This shift was influenced by Rachel Carson's 1962 book, *Silent Spring*, which is often credited with initiating this modern environmental movement. The 1960s saw more federal environmental bills signed than any other period in US history, with the Clean Air Act of 1963 being the first federal regulation on air pollution. During this time, New York City and London experienced severe bouts of smog, which caused thousands of deaths and illnesses, and spurred governments to address environmental legislation.

New York City's air pollution

New York City has long struggled with air pollution, and the 1960s were no exception. The city's air quality has improved over the past several decades, but it still poses a severe hazard to the health of its residents.

In the 1960s, New York City's air pollution was a serious issue, with the city experiencing several bouts of deadly smog. The most infamous episode occurred in November 1966, when a large mass of stagnant air over the East Coast trapped pollutants in the city's air. For three days, New Yorkers endured dangerously high levels of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, smoke, and haze. This event led to a first-stage alert being declared, and regional leaders asked residents and industries to voluntarily reduce emissions. The 1966 smog was not an isolated incident, as New York had experienced similar events in 1953 and 1963.

The 1966 smog had a significant impact on public awareness and policy change. It catalysed national recognition of air pollution as a critical health and political issue, leading to the passing of the 1967 Air Quality Act and the 1970 Clean Air Act. The event also prompted scientists to re-evaluate and improve the city's methodology for recording air pollutant levels, as the previous system was deemed inadequate.

Even today, air pollution in New York City remains a concern, with the city continuing to struggle with ozone pollution. Ozone is a critical component of smog and is considered one of the most dangerous gaseous pollutants. While city-wide ozone levels have decreased over the last three decades, it still poses a significant environmental health threat to residents, particularly in areas like Staten Island, Southern Brooklyn, Central Queens, and the Northwest Bronx.

The COVID-19 lockdown in 2020 provided a brief respite, with New York observing a 25% reduction in fine particle pollution (PM2.5) compared to 2019. However, with rising temperatures, vehicle congestion, and other factors, the city must continue to address air pollution to protect the health and well-being of its residents.

London's Great Smog

The Great Smog was caused by a combination of factors, including unusually cold weather, an anticyclone, and windless conditions, which allowed airborne pollutants, mostly from coal combustion, to accumulate and form a thick layer of smog over the city. The smog was so dense that it reduced visibility to just a few meters, disrupting transportation and even seeping into indoor areas. According to reports, the fog was so thick in some areas that people could not see their feet, and driving became difficult or, at times, impossible.

The impact of London's Great Smog on public health was devastating. Government medical reports estimated that up to 4,000 people died as a direct result of the smog, with more recent research suggesting the total number of fatalities was closer to 12,000. In addition, the smog made more than 100,000 people ill, causing respiratory infections and other health issues. The smog was reported to have even asphyxiated cattle in the fields.

The environmental disaster led to the adoption of the Clean Air Act in 1956, which aimed to tackle air pollution from industrial activities and domestic coal combustion. The Act resulted in significant reductions in emissions in urban areas and the closure of many polluting industrial infrastructures. Additionally, financial incentives were offered to households to replace open coal fires with alternatives, such as gas fires or smokeless fuels like coke.

Environmental legislation

Air pollution has been a recognized threat to human health for thousands of years, with the first written accounts of air pollution dating back to ancient Greece around 400 BC. The problem of air pollution became significantly worse with the Industrial Revolution, which saw a transition to new manufacturing processes and a rise in coal consumption and combustion, leading to unprecedented levels of air pollution. This issue was particularly acute in Europe and North America, the continents that first experienced rapid industrial growth.

In the 1960s, air pollution was a severe problem, with cities like London and New York experiencing bouts of deadly smog. In December 1952, London was affected by the Great Smog, which led to the adoption of the Clean Air Act of 1956. Despite this legislation, air pollution remained a critical issue in London and other cities throughout the 1960s.

The 1960s marked a turning point in popular awareness about environmental problems, with the emergence of the modern environmental movement. This shift was influenced by Rachel Carson's 1962 book, *Silent Spring*, which is often credited with initiating the modern environmental movement. The groundswell of activism and federal environmental legislation that followed led to more federal environmental bills being signed in the 1960s and early 1970s than any other period in US history.

During this period, Lyndon Johnson authorized the first federal regulation on air pollution with the Clean Air Act of 1963, which was later expanded by the Air Quality Acts of 1966 and 1967. These acts were further expanded by Richard Nixon, who created the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 and signed a significantly expanded Clean Air Act that same year.

While the 1960s saw important strides in environmental legislation, air pollution remained a significant issue in the decades that followed. It was not until the latter decades of the twentieth century that transboundary issues like acid rain, forest decline, and ground-level ozone became the main environmental and political air quality issues. By the twenty-first century, emissions in East and South Asia dominated global emissions, and new epidemiological evidence emerged highlighting the effects of air quality on human health.

Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring

Air pollution was a significant issue in the 1960s, with Europe and North America being the most impacted continents due to their earlier experience of rapid industrial growth. The burning of coal for heating, cooking, and industrial activities contributed to high levels of emissions and air pollution in cities, which later spread across countries.

Rachel Carson's book, "Silent Spring," published on September 27, 1962, played a pivotal role in addressing this issue and shaping environmental awareness during that period. Carson, a renowned nature author and former marine biologist, courageously confronted the chemical industry and raised alarms about the indiscriminate use of DDT, a synthetic pesticide used during World War II.

In "Silent Spring," Carson meticulously described how DDT entered the food chain, accumulating in the fatty tissues of animals and humans, causing cancer and genetic damage. She argued that DDT and other pesticides had irreversibly harmed wildlife and contaminated the world's food supply. Carson accused the chemical industry of spreading disinformation and criticized public officials for uncritically accepting their claims. The book sparked a national debate about the use of chemical pesticides, the responsibility of science, and the limits of technological progress.

The publication of "Silent Spring" faced fierce opposition from chemical companies, who spent significant amounts to discredit Carson's research and character. Despite this, the book gained widespread support from the academic community and the public. It influenced public opinion, leading to a shift in US pesticide policy and a nationwide ban on DDT for agricultural uses. "Silent Spring" is credited with initiating the modern environmental movement and inspiring a wave of federal environmental legislation in the 1960s and early 1970s.

"Silent Spring" left a lasting legacy, challenging humankind's relationship with nature and calling for the regulation of our appetites for self-preservation. Carson's work continues to resonate and inspire, even decades after its publication.

Air pollution films

Air pollution was a significant issue in the 1960s, with Europe and North America, the continents that first experienced rapid industrial growth, bearing the brunt of its adverse effects. The problem was exacerbated by the expansion of factories, the rise in coal consumption, and the growing population, which contributed to increased emissions and deteriorating air quality.

The 1960s marked a turning point in public awareness about environmental issues, and the US government turned to film to educate the public about the risks of air pollution. The National Library of Medicine holds six films produced or supported by the United States Public Health Service between 1960 and 1972, highlighting the history and environmental impact of air pollution. These films, including "Sources of Air Pollution" and "Public Enemy," are part of the "Darkening Day: Air Pollution Films and Environmental Awareness, 1960-1972" collection. They address air pollution as a public health issue, caused by human industry, and advocate for federal and state regulation, along with personal actions, to address the problem.

One notable film from this collection is "Beware the Wind" (1967), which exemplifies the late 1960s environmentalist rhetoric. It identifies the sources of air pollution, such as industry, motor vehicles, incinerators, and cities, and emphasizes the intractable nature of the problem as modernity expands. The film employs doomsaying rhetoric, a common technique in this period, to spur outrage and action, ending with a bleak depiction of the smells of modern air pollution.

Another influential factor in the emergence of modern environmentalist discourses was Rachel Carson's 1962 book, "Silent Spring," which is credited with initiating the movement. This led to a wave of activism and federal environmental legislation, with more bills signed in the 1960s and early 1970s than any other period in US history. President Lyndon Johnson's Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal regulation on air pollution, followed by expansions in 1966 and 1967.

Frequently asked questions