Air Pollution In Europe: Understanding The Main Causes

Air pollution is a pressing issue in Europe, causing a significant number of deaths, hospitalisations, and adverse health outcomes. While air quality has improved in recent decades, it remains a significant health and environmental risk. The main sources of air pollution in Europe are energy consumption and agriculture, with fine particulate matter (PM2.5) being one of the worst contributors. This is primarily emitted through the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, as well as the burning of solid fuels for domestic heating and industrial use. Other key pollutants include nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, and non-methane volatile organic compounds, which have been under scrutiny and mitigation efforts since the 1980s. Despite challenges, Europe is working towards ambitious goals, such as the EU's zero pollution vision for 2050, to tackle air pollution and improve public health.

Energy consumption and agriculture

The agriculture sector is another major source of air pollution in Europe. Agricultural activities contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane (CH4) from enteric fermentation and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from soils. Manure management is also a notable source of CH4 emissions. While the EU has set targets for reducing agricultural emissions, the progress has been varied. Between 2005 and 2022, EU agricultural GHG emissions decreased by 5%, with a projected further reduction of 2% by 2023. However, without additional measures, Member States project that their agricultural emissions will increase by 2030.

The impact of air pollution from energy consumption and agriculture extends beyond just human health. Ground-level ozone (O3), for example, can damage agricultural crops and forests, leading to economic losses and affecting biodiversity and ecosystem services. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3) deposited on land and water bodies contribute to eutrophication, promoting excessive algae and aquatic plant growth, which can harm aquatic life through oxygen depletion and soil acidification.

To address these issues, Europe has implemented legislation such as the National Emission reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) and the Air Quality Directives (AQD) to reduce emissions from key pollutants. The EU's commitment to a climate-neutral economy by 2050, with an intermediate target of a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, demonstrates its recognition of the urgency of the situation.

Nitrogen oxides and ammonia

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3) are two of the main air pollutants in Europe, with harmful effects on both human health and the environment.

Nitrogen oxides are emitted from sources such as traffic, industry, and households, and are a major cause of poor air quality. Despite overall declining trends in emissions, 12 EU member states exceeded their emission reduction commitments for nitrogen oxides in 2010, with road transport being the principal source, responsible for 37% of emissions. Reductions in nitrogen oxide emissions from the transport sector have been lower than anticipated due to the growth in transport and higher real-world emissions from diesel vehicles than expected. Nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of PM2.5, a fine particulate matter that is harmful to human health, and can also react with oxygen in the air to form aerosols that contribute to acid rain.

Ammonia is another significant pollutant, with the agriculture sector being the principal source, responsible for 93-94% of total ammonia emissions in Europe. Ammonia emissions have decreased only slightly in many member states since 2005 and, in some cases, have even increased. This poses a significant challenge as ammonia contributes to the formation of secondary particulate matter, which is very harmful to health, and leads to excessive nitrogen presence in water ecosystems, causing eutrophication and other negative environmental impacts.

To address these issues, Europe has implemented legislation such as the National Emission reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) and the Gothenburg Protocol, which set emission reduction commitments and ceilings for nitrogen oxides and ammonia, among other pollutants. However, more efforts are needed to ensure that emission reduction targets are met and to mitigate the harmful effects of these pollutants on human health and the environment.

Sulphur dioxide and particulate matter

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter (PM) are two of the seven main air pollutants in Europe, as identified by the European Union (EU). The other five are ammonia (NH3), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone, and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). Sulphur dioxide and particulate matter are emitted into the atmosphere through human activities and natural processes, and they have significant impacts on both human health and the environment.

Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a pungent, suffocating odour. It is produced by the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gas, which are used for domestic heating, transportation, industry, and power generation. Sulphur dioxide emissions have decreased significantly in Europe over the years due to strict regulations and emission reduction commitments. According to the latest data, sulphur dioxide emissions in Europe decreased by over 93% between 1990 and 2021, the most significant reduction among the main air pollutants.

Particulate matter, on the other hand, refers to inhalable solid particles and liquid droplets of various sizes that are suspended in the air. These particles can include sulphate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, or water. Particulate matter can be directly emitted, mainly from the combustion of fossil fuels or biomass, or formed when other pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, and ammonia react with each other. Fine particulate matter, known as PM2.5, is particularly harmful as it is small enough to enter the lungs and even the bloodstream, causing serious health problems.

The negative health impacts of sulphur dioxide and particulate matter are well-documented. Exposure to these pollutants can irritate the airways, aggravate respiratory diseases, and increase the risk of respiratory tract inflammation, asthma, lung cancer, and stroke. Research has also shown a correlation between exposure to sulphur dioxide and particulate matter and an increase in daily mortality rates in European cities. While the long-term health impacts of short-term exposure are uncertain, even relatively low levels of these pollutants can have detectable short-term effects, and further reductions in air pollution are advisable.

To address the issues caused by sulphur dioxide and particulate matter, Europe has implemented legislation and policies to reduce emissions and improve air quality. The National Emission Reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) sets national emission reduction commitments for Member States and the EU for these pollutants. Additionally, the EU has adopted Ambient Air Quality Directives, which establish air quality standards and monitoring methods. Despite these efforts, air pollution remains a significant challenge, especially in Central and Eastern European countries and Italy, which reported the highest concentrations of particulate matter in 2021.

Non-methane volatile organic compounds

NMVOCs are emitted from a range of sources, including industrial processes, agriculture, and the use of consumer products. In the UK, for example, domestic solvents were the largest source of NMVOC emissions in 2023, contributing 23% of total emissions. These solvents are found in common consumer products such as aerosols, detergents, fragrances, fungicides, and other agricultural chemicals.

Another source of NMVOC emissions is coating applications, which refer to the use of solvents in industrial coatings, such as specialist finishes applied to vehicles, wood, metal, and plastic products, as well as decorative paints. Other industrial processes also contribute to NMVOC emissions, though to a lesser extent than the previously mentioned sources.

To address the issue of NMVOCs and improve air quality, the EU has implemented various policies and directives. The National Emission reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) sets national emission reduction commitments for Member States, aiming to reduce emissions of NMVOCs and other key pollutants. The revised Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) and National Emission Ceilings Regulations (2018) (NECR) have also played a role, requiring the UK to significantly reduce its NMVOC emissions between 2020 and 2030.

Despite these efforts, air pollution remains a significant challenge in Europe, with NMVOCs and other pollutants still impacting the health and well-being of its citizens. According to the European Environment Agency, 97% of the EU's urban population was exposed to concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) above the recommended levels set by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2021. As a result, hundreds of thousands of people die prematurely each year in Europe due to exposure to these pollutants.

Health impacts and legislation

Air pollution is the largest environmental health risk in Europe. It is a major cause of adverse health effects, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Heart disease and stroke are the most common causes of premature deaths attributable to air pollution, followed by lung diseases and lung cancer. In 2020, air pollution led to a significant number of premature deaths in the 27 EU Member States (EU-27). Exposure to concentrations of fine particulate matter above the World Health Organization guideline level resulted in 238,000 premature deaths; exposure to nitrogen dioxide above the respective guideline level led to 49,000 premature deaths. In addition to premature death, air pollution also causes morbidity. People live with diseases related to exposure to air pollution, which imposes a burden in terms of personal suffering and significant costs on the health care sector.

In 2019, exposure to PM2.5 led to 175,702 years lived with disability (YLDs) due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in 30 European countries. That same year, exposure to NO2 led to 175,070 YLDs due to diabetes mellitus (also known as Type 2 diabetes) in 31 European countries. Additionally, 12,253 people across 23 European countries were admitted to the hospital with lower respiratory infections resulting from acute exposure to ozone.

Maternal exposure to air pollution is associated with adverse birth outcomes, such as low birth weight, pre-term birth, and small gestational age births. There is also growing evidence suggesting that air pollution may affect diabetes and neurological development in children.

To address the health impacts of air pollution, Europe has put in place legislation to reduce emissions from harmful air pollutants. The National Emission reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) sets national emission reduction commitments for Member States and the EU for five important air pollutants: nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), sulphur dioxide (SO2), ammonia (NH3), and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). In 2022, 16 Member States met their respective 2020-2029 national emission reduction commitments under the NECD for each of the five main pollutants.

The EU has also adopted strict policies on air quality through the Ambient Air Quality Directives, which set air quality standards for 12 air pollutants and define common methods for monitoring, assessing, and informing the public about ambient air quality in the EU. A proposal for a revised Ambient Air Quality Directive was adopted on 26 October 2022, with the goal of aligning air quality standards more closely with WHO recommendations and strengthening provisions on air quality monitoring and modelling. The revised directive includes strengthened monitoring and measuring provisions for air pollution and rules for access to justice and compensation for those impacted by air pollution.

The EU's zero pollution vision for 2050 aims to reduce air pollution and create a clean and healthy environment for citizens. The European Green Deal's zero pollution action plan sets a target to reduce premature deaths caused by PM2.5 by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. The EU member states have also adopted the final text of the revised Ambient Air Quality Directive, which puts them on a path towards meeting WHO air quality guidelines. This legislation includes binding air quality standards that member states must achieve by 2030 for all major pollutants.

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