Meghan Hodges
The industrial revolution of the 19th century brought about a significant increase in city pollution, particularly in industrial cities across Great Britain and Europe. The large-scale burning of coal, coupled with the emergence of centralized factories, led to episodes of smog and severe air pollution in cities like London, New York, and Liverpool. The respiratory disease bronchitis became Britain's biggest killer by the turn of the 20th century, and industrial pollution was found to have a strong impact on mortality as early as the 1850s. Water pollution also intensified during this period, as factories released chemical waste and pollutants into rivers and streams, contaminating drinking water sources and causing diseases such as cholera and typhoid. While pollution has decreased in many high-income countries today, it remains a significant issue in developing nations, with air pollution being the world's largest environmental health risk.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Understanding of pollution | By the 1800s, people began to understand that unsanitary living conditions and water contamination contributed to disease epidemics. |
| Pollution sources | Industrial processes, burning of coal, automobiles, waste from industries and factories, domestic waste, and new unwanted byproducts from industry. |
| Impact | Air pollution caused episodes of "smog" in cities, resulting in many deaths and respiratory issues. Water pollution made rivers catch fire. |
| Action | Cities took measures to control waste and improve sanitary conditions. The first major sewage system in the US was built in Chicago in the mid-1850s. Social movements and scientific research emerged to address the problem of pollution. |
| Legislation | The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first federal attempt to control air pollution in the US. The Clean Air Act of 1990 set limits on air pollutants and addressed acid rain and ozone depletion. The Clean Water Act of 1972 provided funding to improve sewage treatment plants and set limits on industrial discharges. |
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What You'll Learn
London's air pollution
Towards the end of the 1800s, improved transportation allowed London's population to spread into surrounding suburban areas, reducing population density and contributing to the improvement of air quality. Additionally, the adoption of gas heating, the use of electric motors, and the relocation of industries also played a role in reducing air pollution.
However, London's notorious fog and air pollution persisted into the 1900s. In 1952, a deadly smog incident known as the "Great Smog" enveloped the city, leading to the deaths of thousands of people. This event finally spurred the passing of the Clean Air Act in 1956, which effectively reduced coal burning and improved air quality in London.
London's journey from being one of the worst-polluted cities to a clean air leader showcases the impact of economic restructuring, switching energy sources, and increased environmental regulation. While London's air quality has improved, air pollution remains a significant global challenge, with the World Health Organization highlighting it as the world's largest environmental health risk.
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Industrial pollution and mortality
The industrial revolution brought about a significant increase in pollution, particularly in industrialized cities across Europe and the United States. The burning of coal, the proliferation of factories, and the use of steam power all contributed to air pollution, which had severe health consequences for residents of these cities.
As early as the 1280s, there were complaints about the smoke from burning coal, and by the 1600s, this smoke was causing damage to buildings in London and other major cities. The problem of "smog"—a combination of smoke and fog—became particularly acute in the 19th century, with cities like New York and London experiencing episodes of smog that resulted in many deaths. The respiratory disease bronchitis, caused by air pollution, became Britain's biggest killer by the turn of the 20th century.
Industrial pollution was a major cause of mortality in the 19th century, particularly in urban areas. While there is limited quantitative data on the direct impact of pollution on mortality rates during this period, studies have shown that pollution had a strong influence on mortality as far back as the 1850s. Industrial pollution accounted for 30-40% of the relationship between mortality and population density in 1851-60, and nearly 60% in 1900. The burning of coal, in particular, had severe health impacts, reducing life expectancy by at least 0.57 years between 1851 and 1900.
The effects of industrial pollution on health were wide-ranging. In addition to respiratory diseases, children were especially vulnerable to the impacts of pollution, as their developing lungs were prone to repeated infection. The decline in atmospheric pollution over time has likely contributed to improved health, as evidenced by the increase in average height among British men from the 1890s to the 1980s.
The lack of direct pollution measures in the 19th century makes it challenging to fully understand the extent of the problem. However, the indelible black coating left on the walls of cathedrals and town halls by factory smoke provides a stark reminder of the pollution levels of that era. It was not until the 20th century that legislation began to address air pollution, with the first federal attempt to control air pollution in the United States occurring in 1955 with the Air Pollution Control Act.
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Pollution in US cities
Urban areas have been the primary source of pollution for centuries, and US cities are no exception. The pollution of air, water, and soil multiplied as cities grew in size and complexity. People generated more domestic waste, and industries continually produced new unwanted byproducts. The shift to fossil fuels and the use of coal in factories and homes eliminated constraints on urban expansion. As a result, cities experienced episodes of "smog"—a combination of smoke and fog—which led to many deaths. Cities like New York and London were affected by this, and residents of other industrial cities such as Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester, Chicago, Pittsburgh, and St. Louis experienced acrid smoke that stung their eyes and hindered their breathing.
Towards the end of the 19th century, as cities became more populated, they experienced a new kind of pollution: waste from industries and factories. This new form of pollution, coupled with the proliferation of automobiles, further exacerbated air pollution. By 1940, Los Angeles had over a million cars, and while the harmful effects of exhaust fumes were not yet fully understood, a smog incident in 1943 caused residents to fear a Japanese chemical attack. This led to the establishment of the first air pollution control district in the country, and California became a leader in regulating air pollution.
The late 19th century also saw the emergence of social movements and scientific research aimed at addressing the adverse impacts of pollution on human health. However, technological and political solutions often failed to keep pace with the increasing volume and diversity of pollutants introduced by industrial capitalism. While cities took measures to control waste and garbage, water and air pollution in US urban areas continued to increase well into the 20th century. The Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, became so polluted that it caught fire several times between 1936 and 1969, with the most notable incident in 1969, gaining widespread media attention and spurring public action against water pollution.
The fire on the Cuyahoga River symbolized years of environmental neglect and prompted the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), commonly known as the Clean Water Act. This legislation provided funding to improve sewage treatment plants and set limits on industrial discharges into the water. Similarly, the 1969 Cuyahoga River fire and the 1948 Donora incident, where severe air pollution resulted in asphyxiation and serious illness for thousands, led to the creation of the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, the first federal attempt to control air pollution. Since then, clean air legislation has been continually revised and strengthened, with the Clean Air Act of 1990 addressing acid rain and ozone depletion.
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The Clean Air Act
The industrial revolution and the shift to fossil fuels in the 1800s brought about a new kind of pollution in cities worldwide. As cities became more populated, they experienced industrial and factory waste, as well as air pollution from coal burning, automobiles, and industrial processes. This resulted in episodes of "smog" in major cities, causing respiratory diseases and even deaths.
One of the goals of the Clean Air Act was to set and achieve NAAQS in every state by 1975. To achieve this, the Act directed states to develop state implementation plans (SIPs) applicable to industrial sources to meet the standards. The Act was first enacted in 1963 and has been amended several times since, with major revisions in 1977 and 1990 to set new goals and address specific issues.
The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments were particularly significant in curbing four major threats to the environment and public health: acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic air emissions, and stratospheric ozone depletion. These amendments established the Acid Rain Program, the first cap-and-trade emissions program aimed at reducing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from power plants. The CAA ozone program also works to phase out the use of chemicals that harm the ozone layer.
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Pollution as a health risk
By the 1800s, people began to understand the link between unsanitary living conditions, contaminated water, and disease epidemics. Cities started to implement measures to control waste and build sewage systems, making urban areas healthier places to live and encouraging population growth. However, industrialization brought new forms of pollution, with waste from factories and the burning of coal in homes and factories creating air pollution.
Episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog) in cities like New York and London in the 19th century resulted in many deaths. The respiratory disease bronchitis was Britain's biggest killer by the turn of the 20th century. Industrialization also impacted water quality, with rivers like the Cuyahoga in the US becoming so polluted that they caught fire multiple times between 1936 and 1969, serving as a stark symbol of environmental neglect.
The shift to centralized fossil fuel-powered factories in the 1800s led to even more air pollution. Residents of industrial cities like Birmingham, Leeds, and Manchester experienced acrid smoke that stung their eyes and hindered their breathing. Thick fogs, especially in colder weather, blanketed these cities. Societies to campaign against smoke emerged in the mid-19th century, recognizing the health risks associated with air pollution.
While pollution levels have decreased in recent times due to legislation and technological advancements, experts remain concerned about the potential risks of continuous low-level exposure to pollutants. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported that 92% of the world's population lives in areas where air pollution exceeds recommended limits, and outdoor air pollution is estimated to cause three million deaths per year.
The effects of pollution on health are evident in studies examining the impact on adult heights. For example, British Army soldiers in WWI from highly polluted localities were almost an inch shorter on average than those from less polluted areas, indicating the detrimental impact of pollution on health and development.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, air pollution was a significant issue in cities during the late 1800s. The burning of coal, industrial processes, and the proliferation of automobiles contributed to episodes of "smog" in cities like New York and London, resulting in many deaths.
Pollution had detrimental effects on human health in late 19th-century cities. Industrial pollution was a major cause of mortality, particularly in urban areas, and contributed to respiratory diseases like bronchitis. It is estimated that growing industrial coal use from 1851 to 1900 reduced life expectancy by at least 0.57 years.
Water pollution was also a concern in late 19th-century cities. As cities grew in size and complexity, domestic waste and industrial byproducts contaminated water sources. This led to disease epidemics and negatively impacted public health.
Yes, there were some early efforts to address pollution in late 19th-century cities. Societies and campaigns emerged to combat the "smoke problem," with groups like the Committee for the Consumption of Smoke at Leeds and the Manchester Association for the Prevention of Smoke formed in the 1840s. Technological innovations and scientific research were also directed towards waste management and pollution control. However, these efforts often struggled to keep pace with the increasing volume and diversity of pollutants introduced by industrial capitalism.
