Greta Jimenez
The Middle Ages, which spanned from the 5th to the 15th century, was a time of change and challenges, including environmental concerns and the recognition of pollution's impact on health and well-being. While medieval cities were densely populated and sanitation was a significant issue, the perception of stench and filth may be exaggerated. The main sources of pollution during this era were waste, poor sanitation, and the use of dangerous chemicals. Waterways were often contaminated with human and animal waste, leading to concerns about corrupted air and the spread of diseases. Air pollution, first noted in the 13th century, was linked to coal burning and the use of lead and mercury in various industries. Despite their limited understanding of the causes of diseases, medieval people attempted to address pollution and improve their living conditions.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Air pollution | Caused by coal burning, wood smoke, and waste from butcher shops and tanneries |
| Water pollution | Caused by human and animal waste, industrial waste from dyeing and tanning industries, and lead contamination |
| Soil pollution | Soil erosion due to tree cutting and lack of conservation practices |
| Lead poisoning | Lead acetate used in food and wine, lead-glazed pottery, and lead contamination of drinking water |
| Mercury poisoning | Used in medicines and alchemical experiments, causing "Mad Hatter's disease" and acute mercury poisoning |
| Sanitation issues | Accumulation of human and animal waste in cities, lack of underground sewage systems |
| Disease | Diphtheria, measles, tuberculosis, leprosy, typhus, anthrax, smallpox, salmonella, cholera, Black Death |
| Clothing industry pollution | Use of leather, textile, and metal; dyeing processes and waste disposal |
| Fuel | Coal introduced as primary fuel, causing thick smoke and strong stench |
| Population density | Dense populations in trade communities, overcrowding in cities |
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What You'll Learn
Waterways as dumping grounds for human and animal waste
The contamination of rivers was a problem for many medieval cities. Urban officials believed that the air arising from waterways and waste piling up in the streets posed a grave threat to the population's health. In 1357, London's public authorities forbade citizens from disposing of any waste into the Thames and other streams, under penalty of prison time and "severe punishment". However, by the 1370s, the Thames's channel had narrowed so much that it hindered the passage of ships.
In 1371, a complaint sent from King Edward III to the Mayor and Aldermen of London focused on the butcher's waste issues. He wrote:
> Whereas of late, by reason of the slaughtering of great beasts in the city aforesaid, from the putrefied blood of which running in the streets, and the entrails thereof thrown into the water of Thames, the air in the same city has been greatly corrupted and infected, and whereby the worst of abominations and stenches have been generated, and sicknesses and many other maladies have befallen persons dwelling in the same city…
In 1380, a complaint filed at Coventry stated that some people kept throwing animal wastes, including bones, hides, and offal of oxen, pigs, and sheep, into the river, which "corrupted" the water and "infected the air". In 1480, the Prior of Coventry complained that city dwellers threw their dung, filth, and sweepings into the river daily, causing a stench or an "evell eyre".
In medieval cities, people typically produced 900,000 litres of excrement and nearly three million litres of urine annually, before the advent of underground sewage systems. In addition, there were large amounts of dung from livestock kept within city limits, including pigs, horses, cows, and poultry. Dung was preferably used as fertilizer or buried. Human waste was collected by "gongfermours" or "gong farmers", who were well-paid for their foul-smelling work.
Medieval cities had many ordinances and laws regarding waste disposal, latrines, and toilets. For instance, in 1477, the London city council forbade the construction of latrines over the city's ditches and ordered the destruction of existing ones. In 1284, King Eirik Magnusson of Norway prohibited people from throwing garbage and dung from the quays in Bergen.
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Air pollution from coal burning
The burning of "sea coals", as they were called due to their mode of transportation, led to concerns about air pollution and its potential health effects. In 1288, a commission of inquiry was appointed following complaints from those living near lime kilns about the smoke and its impact on air quality. While the motivation behind these complaints may have been influenced by economic factors, as lime burners were known for their high prices, they nonetheless reflected a growing awareness of the potential health risks associated with air pollution.
In 1307, Edward I issued a royal proclamation prohibiting the use of sea coal in kilns due to its negative impact on the air and health. However, this proclamation had little effect, as coal burning continued to be a prevalent issue. The late medieval period marked a shift in attitudes towards pollution, with people, especially those in London, becoming increasingly concerned about the detrimental effects of coal burning on their health.
The issue of air pollution from coal burning was not limited to England. In 1560-1600, rapid industrialization in England led to increased deforestation and a greater reliance on coal as a fuel source. This trend was also observed in other parts of Europe, such as France and Germany, where large-scale tree-cutting contributed to environmental changes and forced a switch to coal.
Overall, the medieval period witnessed a growing recognition of the connection between air pollution, sanitation, and health. While the understanding of the link between strong odors and disease may have influenced perceptions, the introduction of coal as a primary fuel source undoubtedly played a significant role in exacerbating air pollution during the Middle Ages.
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Lead poisoning from drinking water
The Middle Ages saw the widespread use of lead in everyday life. Lead was used in roofing, gutters, statuary, windows, coins, and pottery glazing. It was also added to food and wine as a sweetener or preservative. As a result, lead poisoning was a common issue, especially among the wealthy who could afford lead-glazed pottery and fine wine.
Drinking water, particularly in medieval towns, often came from runoff collected from lead roofs and stored in lead containers. This constant exposure to lead through drinking water likely contributed to lead poisoning in the population.
Medieval people were unaware of the harmful effects of lead, which were only systematically proven in the second half of the 20th century. However, lead mining communities did recognize the dangers of lead exposure, as it often resulted in premature deaths among miners.
Analysis of medieval skeletons provides further evidence of lead contamination, with urban populations showing significantly higher levels of lead compared to rural populations. The practice of wearing small lead ampullae containing holy water or oil against the skin may have also contributed to lead contamination during the Middle Ages.
The consumption of lead-contaminated water and the widespread use of lead in various aspects of daily life likely had adverse health effects on medieval townspeople. Lead poisoning can cause developmental problems in children, infertility in adults, and even mood swings and violent behaviour.
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Mercury poisoning from medicines
Mercury was commonly used in medicines during the Middle Ages to treat diseases like leprosy and syphilis. Wealthy medieval Europeans were found to have higher levels of mercury in their bodies, as evidenced by tests on skeletons from German and Danish graveyards.
Mercury was also used to manufacture mirrors in the early modern era, from the 16th to the 19th centuries. It was a common ingredient in medicines such as calomel, which was used to treat mild diseases and infections, and "blue mass", which was taken by Abraham Lincoln. Mercury compounds were also used to treat syphilis, which was a plague that lasted from the Middle Ages until the mid-20th century. This toxic therapy resulted in chronic poisoning, leading to fatalities and sudden deaths.
Mercury poisoning can cause skin peeling and brain and liver damage. Dimethylmercury is the most dangerous mercury compound, and even a few microliters can be fatal. Methylmercury is the major source of organic mercury for humans, which works its way up the food web and results in high concentrations in certain species of fish, such as tuna and swordfish.
Medieval cities were plagued by waste disposal issues, with human and animal waste often being dumped into waterways, causing grave threats to the population's health. The contamination of rivers was a problem for many medieval cities, and the accumulation of waste in waterways obstructed streams and posed a risk of overflowing. The air arising from these waterways and the waste piling up in the streets was believed to spread diseases and cause sickness.
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Leather tanning and textile dyeing
Textile dyeing also had its own set of environmental and health impacts. Dyers often worked in separate quarters due to the strong odours and water pollution associated with the dyeing process. They used natural dyes obtained from plants, insects, and minerals, with key sources including woad for blue, madder for red, saffron for yellow, and kermes scale insects for luxury textiles. Urine or ammonia was used to activate the colour of certain dyes, adding to the unpleasant nature of the process.
The dyeing process typically involved preparing the fibres, using mordants like alum to fix the dyes, and immersing textiles in dye baths, sometimes multiple times to achieve intense colours. The quality of the dyeing depended on the skill and experience of the master dyer. The development of specialised dyeing trades, often organised within guilds, helped elevate the craft and made dye production an integral part of medieval textile manufacturing and trade.
In conclusion, while leather tanning and textile dyeing were essential for producing goods needed in everyday medieval life, they also contributed to pollution and health hazards in medieval times.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, medieval cities were polluted. The main sources of pollution were waste and poor sanitation. Rivers were used to dispose of human waste, animal waste, and refuse, contaminating the water. This led to concerns about the spread of disease through corrupted air.
The health impacts of pollution in the medieval period are well documented. Lead poisoning, for example, caused developmental problems in children, infertility in adults, and mood swings and violent behaviour in both children and adults. Mercury poisoning, often from medicines used to treat syphilis, led to unstable behaviour, mercury cravings, and high rates of suicide. Medieval people also suffered from a range of diseases, including diphtheria, measles, tuberculosis, leprosy, typhus, anthrax, smallpox, and salmonella.
People in the medieval period drew connections between stench and disease, believing that strong odors and smells from decomposing matter in the water and air caused illness. They also believed that divine intervention played a role in human fates. In response to pollution, London forbade blacksmiths to work at night in 1394, and ordinances were issued to reduce pollution caused by butcher shops.
