Helena Joyce
London has had poor air quality since the 13th century, but was London polluted in 1802, specifically? The answer is yes. From 1700 onwards, London's air pollution worsened decade by decade, and by the 1800s, the city was experiencing frequent and severe fogs, so dense that they interrupted economic activity and transport. The primary cause of this was coal combustion, which was the primary fuel source for domestic hearths and coal-powered steam engines. This was exacerbated by the use of open fireplaces, which were believed to prevent the air from becoming 'stagnant' and therefore prevent the spread of disease.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Pollution levels in 1802 | Air pollution in London was a significant issue in the early 19th century and continued to worsen over time. |
| Causes | Heavy industry, railways, steamer boats, domestic coal-burning fires, and coal-powered steam engines were major contributors. |
| Health Impact | Exposure to air pollution was linked to negative health effects, particularly respiratory issues. Infant mortality rates increased, and respiratory illnesses, slower growth during childhood, and shorter adult stature were observed. |
| Social Impact | Frequent and dense fogs disrupted economic activities and led to an increase in crime rates. |
| Solutions | Campaigns for smoke abatement gained traction, but resistance and the lack of centralized enforcement hindered progress. |
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What You'll Learn
- London's air pollution was caused by coal-burning fires
- The city's poor air quality led to health issues and deaths
- Pollution from heavy industry, railways, and boats also contributed
- London's fog made the pollution worse and was nicknamed pea-soupers
- The UK's Public Health Act in 1891 helped reduce pollution
London's air pollution was caused by coal-burning fires
London's air pollution has a long history, with the city experiencing severe air quality issues throughout the 19th century. The dominant contributor to London's air pollution during this period was the burning of coal. The coal industry in Great Britain expanded rapidly in the 18th and 19th centuries, driven by economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks. This led to a significant increase in national coal consumption.
The burning of coal in domestic fires and industrial furnaces released fine solid and liquid particles, known as suspended particulate matter (SPM), into the atmosphere. SPM includes soot, smoke, dust, and pollen, which can infiltrate the respiratory system and have been linked to negative cardiorespiratory health impacts and even premature death. The increase in coal burning, combined with the rapid industrialisation of the city, led to a surge in polluted emissions.
The frequent and dense fogs that London experienced during the 19th century were a result of this pollution. Water vapour combined with the particulates released by coal-burning, forming dark and heavy clouds that reduced visibility. These fogs, known as ""pea-soupers" for their dense, yellow appearance, were a hallmark of London at the time. They disrupted travel, economic activities, and even contributed to an increase in crime rates.
The health impacts of coal-burning were significant. Respiratory illnesses increased, and mortality rates from diseases such as bronchitis rose steeply. Higher coal intensity was associated with higher death rates, especially among the elderly and young children. The effects of coal combustion also included repeated respiratory illnesses, slower growth during childhood, and shorter adult stature.
It wasn't until the 20th century that efforts were made to improve air quality in London. The Clean Air Act of 1956 restricted coal burning in domestic fires and industrial furnaces and established smoke-free areas in the city. This, along with a shift towards using gas for heating and cooking, contributed to a steep decline in air pollution levels, making today's levels almost 40 times lower than the peak of the 19th century.
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The city's poor air quality led to health issues and deaths
London's air pollution has been a concern since at least the 13th century, with the diarist John Evelyn writing about "the inconveniencie of the aer and smoak of London [sic]" in 1661. However, the city's pollution problem became much worse during the Industrial Revolution due to the extensive use of coal. Coal-powered steam engines were ubiquitous in industry and transport, and coal was also used for domestic heating and cooking.
The pollution from coal combustion was further exacerbated by the presence of numerous coal-fired electric power stations in the Greater London area, including Fulham, Battersea, Bankside, Greenwich, West Ham, and Kingston upon Thames. The burning of coal released various pollutants into the air, including smoke particles, hydrochloric acid, fluorine compounds, and sulphur dioxide.
The impact of this pollution on the health of Londoners was significant. As early as the 1850s, higher coal intensity was linked to increased death rates from respiratory diseases, especially among the young and the elderly. The mortality rate from bronchitis in London, for example, rose steeply from 25 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants in 1840 to 300 deaths per 100,000 in 1890. At its peak, one out of every 350 people in London died from bronchitis.
In addition to respiratory illnesses, exposure to coal pollution led to repeated respiratory illnesses, slower growth during childhood, and shorter adult stature. The health consequences of air pollution were particularly noticeable during periods of severe fog, which were frequent in London. These fogs, combined with pollution, created a dense smog that disrupted daily life and contributed to an increase in crime rates.
While the Clean Air Act of 1956 helped to improve air quality in London, the city continues to face air pollution challenges today, highlighting the ongoing need to address this issue for the well-being of its residents.
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Pollution from heavy industry, railways, and boats also contributed
During this period, London's air pollution was so severe that it incurred significant economic and health costs. The dominant contributor to this pollution was the burning of coal. The coal industry in Great Britain expanded rapidly in the 18th and 19th centuries, driven by economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks, including railways and waterways. This led to a rapid increase in national coal consumption, which contributed to the worsening air quality in London.
The expansion of railways, a distribution network for coal, also contributed to pollution. The frequent and severe fogs in London were so dense that they halted railway journeys and interrupted economic activities.
In addition to the impact of heavy industry and railways, boat traffic on the Thames River also played a role in London's pollution. The discharge of sewage into the Thames, which began in the 17th century when sections of the Fleet and Walbrook rivers were converted into sewers, resulted in the contamination of the river. This problem was exacerbated in the 19th century by the introduction of flushing toilets and the rising population of London, leading to more sewage being flushed into the river. The outfalls from factories, slaughterhouses, and other industrial activities further contributed to the pollution of the Thames, creating a public health concern.
The "Great Stink" of the 1850s led to efforts to improve the sewer system and reduce the discharge of untreated waste into the Thames. However, these improvements initially resulted in more sewage being discharged directly into the river to prevent the spread of disease through miasma, or contaminated air. The construction of the Northern and Southern Outfall Sewers, completed in 1875, helped to address this issue by ensuring that sewage was no longer dumped into the Thames.
Overall, the pollution from heavy industry, railways, and boats significantly contributed to London's poor air and water quality during the 19th century, leading to economic disruptions and negative health outcomes for the city's residents.
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London's fog made the pollution worse and was nicknamed pea-soupers
In the 19th century, London had a serious air pollution problem, particularly from coal burning. This issue was exacerbated by the city's famous fog, which became a potent mix of smoke and sulphur dioxide, earning it the nickname "pea-soupers." The term "pea-souper" was used to describe the thick, yellow, acrid smog that would descend on the city, reducing visibility and causing respiratory problems for residents.
The fog was a natural phenomenon, a thick cloud of water droplets suspended in the air, which formed when warm, moist air met sudden cold. This was common in London due to its climate and the proximity of the Thames, which provided moisture. However, the industrial revolution and the increased use of coal for heating and cooking meant that the fog became a deadly cocktail of pollutants.
The fog would mix with coal smoke and sulphur dioxide, a byproduct of burning coal, creating a toxic, suffocating smog. This smog would hang over the city for days or even weeks at a time, especially during cold, windless weather. The sun was often completely blocked out, and streetlights would burn throughout the day to provide some visibility.
The pea-soupers were not just an inconvenience; they had severe health consequences. The high levels of sulphur dioxide and smoke particles caused respiratory problems, particularly for the young, old, and infirm. There was also an increase in deaths from bronchitis and pneumonia during these foggy periods. One notable event was the Great Smog of 1880, which lasted four days and led to a significant increase in mortality rates.
The pea-souper fog was a unique and potent symbol of London's pollution problem. It inspired many cultural references, from Charles Dickens' descriptions of fog-shrouded streets in his novels to the iconic image of a foggy, gaslit London in the artwork of Claude Monet. The term "pea-souper" is still used today to describe particularly bad fog or smog, a reminder of London's historical struggle with air pollution.
While the Clean Air Act of 1956 helped to improve air quality in London, the city's historical association with pollution and the infamous pea-souper fog remain a part of its cultural identity. The fog, coupled with coal burning, undoubtedly made London's pollution far worse during the 19th century and led to it becoming one of the first cities to recognize and address the health impacts of air pollution.
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The UK's Public Health Act in 1891 helped reduce pollution
London's air pollution in the 1800s was severe and frequent, with the city experiencing dense fogs that disrupted economic activities and facilitated a rise in crime. The city's air pollution doubled over two centuries, reaching a peak towards the end of the 19th century.
The Public Health Act of 1875 aimed to address these issues, but progress was slow and uneven across different councils. The UK's Public Health Act in 1891 helped reduce pollution by consolidating previous legislative provisions relating to sanitary measures and public health. This Act enabled sanitary authorities to provide medical assistance to poorer citizens and required each authority to appoint a qualified medical officer of health to oversee public health in their area.
The Act also incentivised businesses to adopt cleaner energy practices by imposing financial penalties on those that produced excessive smoke. This encouraged a shift from coal to gas for heating and cooking, with the uptake of gas cookers rising sharply in Great Britain during the 1800s and 1900s. Gas is a much cleaner fuel source, so this transition likely contributed significantly to the decline in air pollution.
Additionally, improved connectivity and commuter links during this period allowed London's population to disperse into surrounding suburban areas, reducing overall population density and exposure to pollution hotspots. The industrial revolution also brought improved working conditions, higher wages, and access to cheaper, mass-produced health and hygiene products, all contributing to better public health.
As a result of these factors, London's air pollution levels began a steep decline from the end of the 19th century, with levels today almost 40 times lower than at their historical peak.
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Frequently asked questions
London's air quality was a problem as early as the 13th century, and from 1700 onwards, the city experienced worsening air pollution. By the 1800s, London was experiencing frequent and severe fogs, which were often so dense that they interrupted daily life. These fogs were caused by a combination of factors, including coal-burning, heavy industry, railways, and steamer boats.
The pollution in London during the 1800s had severe health consequences. Respiratory issues were common, with an increase in coal intensity linked to higher death rates from respiratory diseases, especially among the young and elderly. The pollution also contributed to repeated respiratory illnesses, slower growth during childhood, and shorter adult stature.
Various societies were formed to campaign for "smoke abatement," and there were suggestions for small-scale solutions, such as taxes on fireplaces or restrictions on certain manufacturing plants. However, enforcement of anti-pollution laws was challenging, and it wasn't until the passing of the Clean Air Act in 1956 that more significant changes were implemented.
