Helena Joyce
China's pollution crisis is a result of decades of rapid industrialization, which has had a detrimental impact on the health and livelihoods of its citizens, as well as contributing to global climate change. China's pollution levels have increased significantly, with the country now being the world's largest annual emitter of greenhouse gases and mercury. Energy-related emissions of carbon dioxide increased by more than 80% between 2005 and 2019, and the country continues to rely heavily on coal, a highly polluting source of energy. In addition to air pollution, China also faces severe water shortages and pollution, with over one-quarter of its arable land becoming desert. However, China has made some progress in addressing these issues, with initiatives to reduce carbon emissions and increase forest cover.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Sulphur dioxide emissions | Reduced by more than two-thirds in the last 15 years |
| Air pollution | Reduced dramatically, particularly in big cities |
| Water pollution | Affected by severe water shortages |
| Soil pollution | Increased due to population growth |
| CO2 emissions | 11.9 billion metric tons in 2023, making China the world's largest polluter that year |
| "War against pollution" | Announced in 2014, with pollution levels down by 41-42% in 2021 compared to 2013 |
| Life expectancy | Could increase by 2 years if pollution reductions are sustained |
| Electronic waste | 2.3 million tons produced in 2011, with an expected annual increase |
| Forest cover | Rapidly increasing |
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What You'll Learn
Energy consumption and coal power
China's energy consumption has increased dramatically over the past few decades, driven by its rapid economic growth. As the world's largest consumer of energy, producer and consumer of coal, and emitter of carbon dioxide, China's energy policies have a significant impact on global pollution levels.
Coal consumption in China is closely linked to the country's industrialization. Between 2002 and 2013, coal accounted for 77% of the increase in primary energy demand, with the cement, chemical, and steel sectors being the largest contributors. From 1990 to 2019, China's coal consumption nearly quadrupled, and since 2011, it has consumed more coal than the rest of the world combined. In 2020, coal accounted for 56.8% of China's energy use, and in 2021, this figure decreased slightly to 62.6%. China's heavy reliance on coal for industrial power generation has significantly contributed to air pollution, with 69.5% of its CO2 emissions coming from coal in 2020.
China's government has introduced various policies aimed at reducing coal consumption and transitioning to cleaner energy sources. During the 13th Five-Year Plan (2016-2020), China implemented measures such as capping coal use, removing dispersed coal from urban areas, switching to natural gas heating, and tightening CO2 emissions standards. In 2020, President Xi Jinping pledged to reach carbon neutrality by 2060, and the government released its Mid-Century Long-Term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy, targeting 80% non-fossil fuels in the energy mix.
Despite these efforts, China's coal consumption has continued to rise, with concerns about energy security and power sector reliability taking precedence. China has continued to build new coal mines and coal-fired power plants, and its coal use surged in 2024, with output from thermal plants, predominantly powered by coal, increasing by 1.5% from the previous year. However, China is also the world's largest investor in clean energy transition, investing $266 billion in energy transition measures in 2021.
China's energy policies and actions have significant implications for global pollution levels. While the country has made commitments to reduce coal consumption and increase the share of non-fossil fuels, the continued reliance on coal and the increasing energy demand pose challenges to its climate goals.
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Population growth and soil pollution
China's pollution levels have increased due to industrialisation, rapid economic growth, urbanisation, and motorisation. The country's immense population growth since the 1980s has resulted in increased soil pollution. China is the most populated country in the world, with relatively little fertile land and even less water. Maintaining the quality of its agricultural land is crucial to feed its large and growing population. However, China is among the countries with the highest levels of soil pollution.
Soil pollution in China is caused by agricultural, industrial, and urbanisation activities. Agricultural soil pollution is primarily caused by excessive pesticide and fertiliser use on farmland, mainly in southern China, where most food is produced. Industrial activities contribute to airborne pollutants that settle on the land, mainly in the west of the country. Urbanisation increases the need for consumer goods, vehicles, and energy, leading to more fossil fuel burning and smog.
The consequences of soil pollution in China are severe. According to a 2000 report, 36,000 of 300,000 hectares of monitored farmland had harmful heavy metal levels exceeding the standard by 12%. Soil pollution reduces crop quality and contaminates food crops, posing risks to public health. An estimated 6 million tonnes of food grain are contaminated with heavy metals annually, causing direct losses of 29 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).
China has begun to address its soil pollution problem. The 2014 environmental protection law removed caps on polluter fines, and officials are now held responsible for environmental degradation. While cleaning up soil pollution is challenging and requires significant investment, China is taking steps toward environmental protection and sustainable agriculture.
While China's economic growth has lifted millions out of poverty, it has also led to immense environmental degradation. The country faces trade-offs between economic development and environmental protection, and its rapid industrialisation has resulted in widespread soil pollution, threatening food safety and public health. China's efforts to balance economic growth and environmental sustainability will be crucial in mitigating the impacts of soil pollution on its population.
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Water scarcity and pollution
China's rapid economic growth has lifted millions of people out of poverty, but it has also resulted in immense environmental degradation. The country's ongoing modernisation has expanded access to safe drinking water for millions, yet water security remains a challenge. China is the world's biggest water user, accounting for 13% of global freshwater consumption.
Water scarcity can be defined as an area having less than 1,000 cubic meters (m3) of freshwater available per person, and “absolute water scarcity” as an area containing less than 500 m3 of water per person. In 2017, there was approximately 2,075 m3 of water per person in China, which is not considered water-scarce. However, China’s water resources are far less than the global median (3,776 m3) and roughly one-fifth of the per capita levels in the US (9,459 m3). According to the World Resource Institute (WRI), China suffers from medium-high water stress and is the 56th most water-stressed country in the world.
In 2001, 44% of China’s surface waters were considered unusable due to pollution, compared to just 6.9% in 2018. Despite this improvement, groundwater pollution remains a significant issue. Improving groundwater is far more difficult than treating surface water and will likely remain a long-term challenge for China. The central government has begun to address the pollution problem by issuing stricter regulations on pollutants and spending billions of dollars on water projects, but water quality is generally still poor.
China’s water crisis is both natural and man-made. The rapid population increase and economic growth, as well as lax environmental oversight, have resulted in increased water demand and pollution. The country's industrialisation has also led to widespread environmental and health problems. Energy consumption is a major driver of pollution in China, with coal-powered industries being key contributors to the country's air pollution.
The Chinese government has made considerable investments in improving access to water, but urbanization and climate change continue to strain water resources. China is also undertaking a massive water project called the South-North water diversion, which involves engineering three new waterways to carry water from the country’s wet south to its dry north. This project began in 2002 and is projected to cost $60 billion.
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Greenhouse gas emissions
China's greenhouse gas emissions have been a significant concern, with the country facing widespread criticism from the international community. In 2019, China's emissions exceeded those of all developed countries combined, according to the Rhodium Group. This marked a more than tripling of 1990 levels and a 25% increase over the previous decade. China emitted 27%-28.5% of the world's greenhouse gases in 2019, with the US in second place at 11%.
The country's emissions have multiple sources, including the burning of fossil fuels, coal production, industrial production, motor vehicles, and vessels. China is one of the largest importers of oil, contributing to emissions through its use of motor vehicles. Additionally, the country's rapid urbanization has intensified CO2 emissions, with infrastructure requirements for steel and cement production, which are significant contributors to emissions. China produced half of the world's steel in 2020.
To address these issues, China has implemented several strategies. The 13th Five-Year Plan aimed to increase renewable energy production and improve green infrastructure. Beijing pledged to install substantial capacities of hydropower, wind, and solar power by 2020, and nuclear energy is also part of China's emissions reduction plan. In 2024, China recorded a 3% decrease in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 2023, attributed to an expansion in wind and solar power capacities and a downturn in the property sector.
However, challenges remain, including the technical difficulties of integrating solar energy into the existing power grid and a continued dependence on coal, which increased by 2% in 2023. China has vowed to reach net-zero emissions by 2060, with a peak no later than 2030.
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Air pollution and health
China's rapid economic development has come at the cost of environmental degradation, with various forms of pollution on the rise. Air pollution in China is mainly driven by energy consumption, industry, transportation, and coal power plants. The burning of solid fuels like coal and biomass in households also contributes significantly to indoor air pollution.
The health impacts of air pollution are well-documented. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 300,000 premature deaths per year in China are associated with outdoor air pollution. Chinese scientists have provided similar estimates, with indoor air pollution causing an additional one million deaths. The evidence for the adverse health effects of solid fuels is particularly strong, with lung cancer, acute respiratory infection, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease being prominent concerns. Furthermore, the fine particles in polluted air can penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, causing diseases such as stroke, heart disease, and respiratory infections.
China recognized the seriousness of the situation and launched an anti-pollution campaign in 2013, targeting PM2.5 particulate matter. This campaign halved the average PM2.5 concentration from 2013 to 2019. During the Covid era, China continued to make progress in improving air quality, and the average annual concentration of PM2.5 in major Chinese cities fell further in 2022.
Despite these efforts, it is too early to declare victory in the battle against pollution. While China has the fastest air quality improvement rate globally, the immense population growth, rapid economic development, and increasing energy demands continue to pose significant challenges. Nevertheless, China's success in steeply reducing pollution has contributed to a global decline in pollution levels, and sustained efforts could lead to a potential increase in average life expectancy for its citizens.
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Frequently asked questions
The main causes of China's pollution are industry, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage. China's immense population growth has also resulted in increased soil pollution.
Air pollution is linked to a range of diseases, including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and respiratory infections. According to a study in The Lancet, an estimated 1.24 million people died from air pollution in China in 2017.
China has implemented measures to reduce pollution and mitigate climate change, such as investing in renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and tightening air pollution controls. The Innovative Financing for Air Pollution Control Program, supported by the World Bank, has helped reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 2.5 million tons per year.
China's rapid economic growth and industrialization have contributed to environmental degradation. There is a tension between economic development and environmental protection, as industries that drive economic growth, such as coal-powered industries, are also major sources of pollution.
