China Vs India: Who Pollutes More?

China and India are two of the most populous countries in the world, with large-scale industrialization and significant contributions to global emissions. While China is the world's biggest emitter of carbon dioxide, India has also been criticized for its pollution levels, with both countries facing the challenge of balancing economic growth and environmental sustainability. It is important to acknowledge that the emissions involved in producing goods for export are counted as the responsibility of the manufacturing country, and consumers in other countries also contribute to these emissions. This article will explore the pollution levels and efforts to address environmental concerns in China and India, highlighting the complexities and shared global responsibility in tackling climate change.

China is the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide

China's heavy industries, such as steel and cement production, also contribute significantly to its carbon emissions. The steel industry is China's second-largest emitter after electricity generation, and the country manufactures half of the world's steel. Additionally, the agriculture sector is a major source of emissions, with China having the world's largest greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture during 1996-2016. More recently, emissions from transport have grown rapidly in China, with road transportation contributing 84% of total greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector.

China has recognized the need to reduce its carbon emissions and has set targets to peak carbon emissions before 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality before 2060. The country has implemented various pollution control initiatives, such as setting up city-specific targets for air quality progress and requiring companies to complete environmental impact assessments. However, China's Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement have been rated as ""highly insufficient" by the Climate Action Tracker, indicating that more aggressive action is needed to meet global warming targets.

While China is the largest emitter of carbon dioxide, it is important to consider historical emissions and emissions per capita. The United States, for example, has emitted twice as much CO2 as China to date and has higher per capita emissions. Additionally, the impact of consumption by countries like the US and the UK on China's emissions should be considered, as many goods produced in China are imported and consumed by these countries.

India's pollution-related deaths are the highest in the world

India's pollution problem is a serious issue that has been linked to millions of deaths in the country. According to a 2017 Forbes article, India had the highest number of pollution-related deaths in the world, accounting for 2.5 million out of 9 million deaths attributed to pollution globally in 2015. A more recent study led by Boston College researchers found that pollution-related deaths in India numbered 1.67 million in 2019, making it the country with the highest pollution-related death toll that year. This accounted for 17.8% of all deaths in India in 2019 and resulted in $36.8 billion in economic losses.

The problem is exacerbated by the use of poorly ventilated stoves and open fires for cooking indoors, as well as increasing emissions from vehicles and the use of coal for electricity generation. India's rapid industrialization and urbanization have also contributed to the country's poor air quality. According to analyses of NASA satellite data, India's levels of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) worsened by 13% between 2010 and 2015. Delhi's average annual PM2.5 concentrations are about 150 μg/m3, which is three times higher than the WHO guideline of 10 μg/m3 as an annual average and 15 times the recommended limit.

The health risks associated with air pollution are significant, especially for children. Exposure to pollutants, even during pregnancy and early childhood, can result in lifelong diseases, disabilities, premature death, and reduced learning and earning potential. A study by Karolinska Institutet found that long-term exposure to air pollution contributed to millions of deaths in India, with every 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 concentration leading to an 8.6% increase in mortality. Another study, published in Lancet Planetary Health in December 2024, estimated that approximately 3.8 million deaths could be linked to air pollution levels above India's air quality guidelines of 40 μg/m3. When considering the stricter WHO guidelines of 5 μg/m3, the figure rises to 16.6 million deaths.

While India has implemented some measures to address pollution, such as the national air pollution control programme started in 2017, the impact of these efforts has been limited. Southern Indian states have been more successful in reducing air pollution through targeted policies compared to northern states, where pollution and its consequences have had a greater impact on mortality and economic costs. India can take inspiration from countries like China, which has adopted pollution control targets and made progress in improving air quality, and the United States, which has reduced air pollution by 70% since the Clean Air Act was passed in the 1970s.

China's pollution problem is caused by its heavy reliance on coal power

China and India both struggle with deadly pollution, but China's pollution problem is largely caused by its heavy reliance on coal power. China emits more greenhouse gases than any other country, with coal-fired power plants being a major source of energy. The country is currently running 1,058 coal plants, which is more than half of the world's capacity. China's coal consumption has grown by 650% over the last four decades, and its coal use doubled between 2001 and 2005.

The Chinese government has recognized the need to reduce its reliance on coal and has introduced several policies aimed at decreasing coal's share of the energy mix. These include capping coal use, removing dispersed coal from urban areas, switching from coal to natural gas heating, closing inefficient coal-fired boilers, and strengthening efficiency standards in power plants. Despite these efforts, China still burns more coal than the rest of the world combined and has accelerated the construction of coal-fired power plants. This is due to China's abundance of coal, which it views as a way to avoid becoming overly dependent on foreign energy suppliers.

The pollution caused by coal-fired power plants has resulted in significant health problems and economic costs in China. According to a study, China had 1.8 million total fatalities due to pollution in 2015. To combat this issue, China has implemented various pollution control initiatives, such as setting up city-specific targets for air quality progress and requiring companies to complete environmental impact assessments.

In summary, China's pollution problem is heavily influenced by its reliance on coal power, and while the country has taken steps to reduce coal consumption and mitigate pollution, it continues to face challenges in balancing its energy needs with the need to limit greenhouse gas emissions.

India's pollution is exacerbated by agricultural burning and industrialisation

India's pollution problem is a complex issue that has been exacerbated by a combination of factors, including agricultural burning and industrialization. While China is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, India is not far behind, and the two countries together contribute significantly to global emissions.

Agricultural burning is a common practice in India, particularly in the northern states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh, where farmers burn crop residues, such as rice paddy straws, to quickly and cheaply dispose of them before the next planting season. This practice has severe consequences for air quality and public health, causing respiratory and skin problems, as well as contributing to the premature deaths of 44,000–98,000 people annually. The smoke from these fires, mixed with emissions from power plants and vehicles, creates a toxic cocktail that blankets cities like New Delhi, resulting in it having the poorest air quality among capital cities globally.

India's industrialization has also played a significant role in exacerbating pollution levels. The country's rapid economic development has been fueled by the establishment of numerous factories and industrial plants, which emit large quantities of pollutants into the atmosphere. India's power sector relies heavily on coal, with coal-fired power plants being a major source of particulate matter (PM 2.5) emissions. These emissions, along with those from other industrial sources, contribute to the formation of secondary PM 2.5, which spreads widely and affects multiple states and cities.

The Indian government has recognized the severity of the country's pollution problem and has taken several steps to address it. The National Clean Air Program (NCAP) aims to reduce particulate matter pollution by 30% by 2024, with a focus on improving air quality in 132 cities that are not meeting standards. India is also strengthening vehicular and industrial emission standards, promoting renewable energy and electric vehicles, and supplying cleaner cooking fuels to households. Additionally, organizations like the Clean Air Fund and The Nature Conservancy are working with farmers to extinguish agricultural fires and adopt alternative farming practices.

While India's pollution problem is deeply entrenched, the efforts of the government, private sector, and civil society demonstrate a commitment to mitigating the issue. By addressing agricultural burning and industrial emissions, India can significantly improve its air quality and reduce the health and economic impacts of pollution.

China and India's emissions are increased by manufacturing exports

China and India are two of the biggest polluters in the world, with high emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollution. However, it is important to consider the role of manufacturing exports in their emissions. Both countries have large manufacturing sectors that produce goods for export, and these exports can significantly contribute to their emissions.

In 2012, China emitted 1.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from manufacturing exports, which was around 16% of its total emissions. Steel production, for example, accounts for about 10% of China's CO2 emissions, and the country manufactures half of the world's steel supply. Additionally, a 2014 study found that a fifth to a third of China's air pollutants were related to goods produced for export, with at least 20% linked specifically to trade with the US.

India also has a significant manufacturing sector that contributes to its emissions. Many countries in the Global North, such as the US, UK, and France, outsource key parts of their industrial processes to India, and the emissions from producing these exports are counted as India's responsibility. While there are no specific figures for India's export-related emissions, it is clear that a significant portion of its pollution is due to manufacturing exports.

The growth of emissions generated in the manufacture of exports from China and India has slowed or reversed in recent years. However, emissions embedded in exports from less-developed countries, where many energy-intensive industries are relocating, have surged. This shift in production and trade makes it harder to meet global emissions reduction goals, as the emissions are simply being outsourced to other countries.

To address this issue, there have been calls for greater emphasis on consumption-based emissions, which consider the carbon footprint of imported goods and deduct the emissions of exported goods. This approach is believed to more accurately reflect the consumption and lifestyle choices of a country's citizens and would result in a decrease in China and India's emissions output, though not significantly.

Frequently asked questions