Brian Barton
Outdoor air pollution is a pressing issue that affects the health of millions of people worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), outdoor air pollution is responsible for approximately 4.2 million premature deaths annually, with 89% of these occurring in low- and middle-income countries. While no region is entirely free from the risks of air pollution, some nations consistently rank among those with the worst outdoor air quality. This paragraph will introduce the topic by highlighting some of the countries that are most affected by this issue and exploring the potential causes and impacts of their poor air quality.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Countries with the worst outdoor pollution | Many countries in Africa, South Asia, Central and South Asia, the Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent |
| Annual average of fine particulate matter per cubic meter | 18 times the upper limit of the WHO's recommended range of 0 to 5 micrograms |
| Number of countries exceeding the WHO's annual PM2.5 guideline value of 5 µg/m3 | 125 out of 138 countries |
| Global death rates from outdoor air pollution | 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019 |
| Percentage of premature deaths in low- and middle-income countries | 89% |
| Leading risk factors for death | Heart disease, stroke, respiratory infections, lung cancer, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) |
| Sources of outdoor air pollution | Combustion from transportation, industrial businesses, biomass burning, and agriculture |
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What You'll Learn
Outdoor air pollution in low-income countries
Outdoor air pollution is a significant health and environmental issue worldwide, but it disproportionately affects people in low- and middle-income countries. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), outdoor air pollution caused an estimated 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide in 2019, with 89% of those deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries, particularly in the WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific Regions.
Several factors contribute to the high levels of outdoor air pollution in these regions. Firstly, low-income countries often have less stringent air quality regulations, allowing for the continued use of older, more polluting machinery and vehicles. Additionally, these countries may have a higher dependence on polluting industries and technologies, such as fossil fuel subsidies and congested urban transport systems. Rapid industrialization and the development of industrial sectors can also lead to increased outdoor air pollution as countries shift from low to middle incomes.
The impact of outdoor air pollution is exacerbated in low-income countries due to limited access to adequate and affordable healthcare. The interplay between pollution, exposure, and poverty puts low-income groups at a higher risk of pollution-related diseases and increased mortality rates. Furthermore, low-income groups are more likely to be engaged in outdoor physical labor, exposing them to higher levels of air pollution.
Addressing outdoor air pollution in low-income countries is crucial for protecting public health and socioeconomic development. Implementing policies and investments that support cleaner transport, energy-efficient homes, improved power generation, and better waste management practices can help reduce outdoor air pollution levels. Additionally, providing access to clean household energy can significantly reduce ambient air pollution in certain regions.
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Natural sources of pollution
Outdoor air pollution is a significant environmental health problem that affects people in low-, middle-, and high-income countries. In 2019, it caused an estimated 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide, with 89% of those occurring in low- and middle-income countries.
Natural Processes and Fugitive Sources
Natural processes, such as dust storms, are a significant contributor to outdoor air pollution. Fugitive sources, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and dust, result from the leakage of gases from storage and handling facilities and the resuspension of dust, respectively. Resuspended dust from roadways, agricultural lands, industrial sources, construction sites, and deserts is a major source of particulate matter (PM) pollution in many regions. This dust often contains metals associated with motor vehicles, fertilizers, and animal waste.
Forest Fires and Volcanic Eruptions
Forest fires and volcanic eruptions release large amounts of smoke and ash into the atmosphere, which can spread over vast distances and affect air quality in downwind regions. These events can have immediate and long-lasting impacts on outdoor air quality, depending on their intensity and duration.
Biogenic Emissions
Biogenic emissions, such as pollen, spores, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by plants, can also contribute to outdoor air pollution. While they are natural and essential for plant growth, high concentrations of biogenic VOCs can react with other pollutants and form ground-level ozone, a harmful component of smog.
Wind-Blown Dust and Sand
Wind-blown dust and sand, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, can be picked up by strong winds and transported over long distances, contributing to particulate matter pollution. This can have both natural and anthropogenic sources, including agricultural practices, construction activities, and natural desert conditions.
Natural Radioactivity
Radioactive materials present in the earth's crust, such as radon gas, can be released into the atmosphere through natural processes. Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that can accumulate in buildings and outdoor spaces, particularly in areas with underlying granite or shale. While it is invisible and odourless, prolonged exposure to radon can increase the risk of lung cancer.
Addressing outdoor air pollution requires concerted action by policymakers and societies to implement cleaner technologies, improve energy efficiency, and promote sustainable practices in various sectors, including energy, transport, waste management, and agriculture.
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Manmade sources of pollution
While natural sources like wildfires, sandstorms, sea spray, and volcanic activity contribute to air pollution, human activities are responsible for most of the harmful air pollution across the globe. This is especially true in the case of the United States, where human mobile sources, including cars, are responsible for over half of the air pollution.
Outdoor air pollution is a significant problem in emerging and developing countries, where global environmental standards are often not met. As countries industrialize and transition from low to middle-income economies, outdoor air pollution tends to increase.
Particulate Matter (PM)
Particulate matter (PM) refers to solid or liquid compounds suspended in the air. PM is typically categorized into two groups: PM2.5 and PM10. PM2.5 refers to particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or smaller, while PM10 refers to particulate matter with a diameter of 10 micrometres or smaller.
PM2.5 is primarily emitted by combustion sources, such as vehicles, diesel engines, and industrial facilities. The combustion of gasoline, oil, diesel fuel, or wood produces much of the PM2.5 pollution found outdoors. Wildfires also contribute significantly to PM2.5 pollution.
PM10 includes dust from construction sites, landfills, agriculture, wildfires, brush/waste burning, industrial sources, wind-blown dust from open lands, pollen, and fragments of bacteria.
Ozone
Ozone is a harmful air pollutant and the main ingredient in smog. Ground-level ozone is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This occurs when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants, and other sources react in the presence of sunlight.
While stratospheric ozone occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere, protecting us from harmful ultraviolet rays, it has been partially destroyed by man-made chemicals, creating a "hole in the ozone."
Other Pollutants
In addition to PM and ozone, human activities also release other pollutants into the air. These include:
- Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- Black carbon or soot
- Carbon monoxide
- Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
- Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
- Methane
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Air pollution in Africa and South Asia
Air pollution is a significant issue in many nations around the globe, and it is among the biggest health problems faced by modern industrial society. According to The Lancet, air pollution was responsible for nearly 4.5 million premature deaths in 2019, with more than 10% of all deaths worldwide attributed to it.
Africa and South Asia are two regions that are particularly affected by air pollution and its adverse health impacts.
Air Pollution in Africa
In Africa, air pollution is responsible for a significant number of deaths, with the death rate linked to air pollution being almost double the global average. As of 2019, particulate matter pollution (PM 2.5) was the leading risk factor for deaths across the continent, with the highest death rate in Northern Africa and the lowest in Eastern Africa. The number of deaths due to ambient PM 2.5 ranged from 90,600 in Egypt to fewer than 100 in São Tomé and Príncipe (Central Africa) and Comoros (Eastern Africa). Overall, PM 2.5 exposures across Africa have remained stagnant from 2010 to 2019, with country-level comparisons revealing major disparities.
The sources of PM 2.5 pollution vary within and between countries in Africa. Residential fuel use, fossil fuel use for energy production, transportation, industry, and waste burning all contribute significantly to outdoor PM 2.5 levels. Fossil fuel use is the biggest contributor in Southern Africa, while residential fuel use is a key factor in Eastern and Central Africa. Additionally, desert dust from arid regions also contributes to particulate matter pollution.
The impact of air pollution in Africa extends beyond health issues. It also imposes economic costs, with air pollution-related diseases resulting in significant losses in economic output for countries like Ethiopia, Ghana, and Rwanda. Furthermore, air pollution has been correlated with losses in cognitive development among African children, further underscoring the far-reaching consequences of this issue.
Some African countries are beginning to address this issue through policy measures. For example, Egypt has implemented the Greater Cairo Air Pollution Management and Climate Change Project, while Ethiopia has introduced Addis Ababa's first Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP).
Air Pollution in South Asia
South Asia also suffers from extreme air pollution, with nine out of the world's ten cities with the worst air pollution located in the region. The high concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) in densely populated and poor areas are up to 20 times higher than the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommended limit, causing approximately 2 million premature deaths in the region each year.
Governments in South Asia are increasingly implementing policies to reduce air pollution, but current initiatives primarily focus on air quality within cities. To effectively tackle this issue, cooperation across jurisdictions and sectors is necessary, as the sources of emissions in South Asia are diverse and influenced by unique regional activities.
The Health Effects Institute has developed the Database of South Asia – Air Pollution and Health (DoSAAH), which is an interactive resource that compiles peer-reviewed research studies and literature on air pollution and its health effects in the region. This database is expected to inform research and policy decisions to improve air quality and protect public health in South Asia.
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Air pollution in North Africa and the Middle East
Air pollution is a critical global issue that adversely affects human health and the environment. While it poses a significant challenge worldwide, certain regions, such as North Africa and the Middle East, are emerging as new pollution hotspots. This region has witnessed a concerning rise in pollution levels, with a 13% increase in 2022 compared to 2021, making it 3.7 times more polluted than the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommended guidelines.
North Africa and the Middle East are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and air pollution. The region is expected to be one of the prominent "hot spots" for climate change, where health risks are heightened, especially for the increasing older population and those with chronic illnesses. The impact of air pollution on disease burden, mortality, and life expectancy in this region has been the subject of systematic analyses, such as the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019.
Particulate pollution, largely attributed to industrial emissions and construction, poses a significant threat to the residents of these regions. Qatar, for instance, was not only the most polluted country in the Middle East and North Africa in 2022 but also ranked fourth globally. The high levels of particulate pollution in Qatar are reducing the life expectancy of its residents by 3.3 years compared to the WHO guideline.
The Middle Eastern countries generally have higher pollution levels than their North African counterparts within the region. However, the entire region stands to gain significantly in terms of life expectancy if pollution levels are reduced to meet WHO guidelines. The 466.5 million residents of the Middle East and North Africa region could gain up to 1.3 years in life expectancy, with those in the Middle East gaining 10 more months compared to North Africa.
While the burden of air pollution is generally higher in low and middle-income countries due to indoor and outdoor pollution, North Africa and the Middle East are facing a new challenge as pollution hotspots. The lack of comprehensive studies on the interaction between air pollution, climate, and health in North Africa highlights the need for further research to address this growing concern.
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Frequently asked questions
Nepal has the worst air pollution levels in the world. Its location between China and India, coupled with its mountainous terrain, creates natural "pollution sinks" that concentrate industrial and urban air pollution from neighbouring countries.
Pakistan, India, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Myanmar, Burundi, Lesotho, and Rwanda are all known for having poor air quality.
Causes vary by country but include industrial and urban air pollution, old vehicles, the burning of trash, unregulated heavy industry, and indoor wood stoves.
Air pollution is a major threat to public health and is responsible for millions of premature deaths worldwide each year. Short-term effects include difficulty breathing, chest pain, and coughing, while long-term effects can include lung tissue damage, cancer, and heart and lung diseases.
