Helena Joyce
A large body of environmental justice research has been conducted over the past several decades, revealing clear patterns of racial and socioeconomic disparities in the distribution of environmental hazards. However, few studies have examined the processes by which these disparities occur. This has led to conflicting findings and limited understanding of the direction of causality between the presence of polluting facilities and the concentration of marginalized communities. The question of which came first, people or pollution? is critical to addressing environmental injustices and reducing the impact of climate change on vulnerable communities.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | 18 November 2015 |
| Objective | To determine whether disparate siting, post-siting demographic change, or a combination of the two created present-day disparities |
| Methods | Longitudinal analyses using distance-based methods |
| Data | National database of commercial hazardous waste facilities from 1966 to 1995 |
| Findings | Strong evidence of disparate siting; some evidence of post-siting demographic changes, but these were mostly a continuation of pre-siting changes |
| Implications | Neighbourhood transition attracts noxious facilities, rather than facilities attracting people of colour and low-income populations |
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What You'll Learn
Environmental injustice
The concept of environmental justice asserts that everyone, regardless of race, colour, national origin, or income, should have equal access to a healthy and sustainable environment and meaningful involvement in the policies that shape their communities. However, the reality is often very different, with people of colour and low-income communities bearing the brunt of environmental hazards and facing higher health risks.
Historical and ongoing systemic racism, segregation, and predominantly white political institutions have led to the concentration of minority and low-income communities in areas with higher environmental degradation. This is due to unfair housing policies, disinvestment in communities of colour, and the intentional siting of toxic waste facilities and industrial operations in these areas. The weakening of environmental rules and regulations by governments has further exacerbated the issue, with rollbacks on safe drinking water protections, clean power plans, and regulations regarding coal ash dumping and petroleum refineries, which have severely impacted communities of colour.
The environmental justice movement aims to address these injustices and ensure that all people are involved in environmental decision-making processes. It emerged in the 1960s alongside the Civil Rights Movement, with communities of colour organising to oppose environmental threats, such as toxic waste dumps and unsafe working conditions. The work of the environmental justice movement has had a significant impact, reshaping how communities experience their environment and saving lives.
While progress has been made, there is still much work to be done to address environmental injustices. It is crucial to acknowledge the historical destruction caused by systemic racism and to empower affected communities to advocate for themselves and the solutions they need. Climate activists, policymakers, and experts must engage directly with these communities to create an equitable and sustainable future for all.
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Hazardous waste sites
The EPA works with various agencies to address hazardous waste sites, including the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and state-level departments such as the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services (DHSS). The DHSS provides health information and assessments to the public and agencies, and may be involved at any phase of the evaluation and cleanup process. The Superfund program, established by Congress in 1980, was designed to identify and clean up hazardous waste sites, with the list containing the worst toxic sites in the US.
Research has examined the relationship between hazardous waste sites and demographic changes, particularly regarding racial and socioeconomic disparities. Studies have found that hazardous waste sites are disproportionately located in low-income and minority communities, with some suggesting that demographic changes after siting have led to high concentrations of these groups around hazardous sites. However, the causality between facility siting and demographic factors is complex and requires further investigation.
The environmental justice movement has raised important questions about the impact of siting decisions on minority and low-income communities, with scholars arguing that hazardous waste sites have been placed in these areas at higher rates. The movement aims to address environmental discrimination and reduce the incidence of disparate siting decisions. Overall, hazardous waste sites are a critical issue that requires collaboration between various agencies to ensure the protection of public health and the environment.
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Racial and socioeconomic disparities
Several studies have found that racial and ethnic minorities and low-income groups in the US are exposed to higher levels of air pollution. A 2021 study by Tessum et al. found that PM2.5 polluters disproportionately affect people of colour in the US. Similarly, a 2022 study by Jbaily et al. found that, from 2004 to 2016, lower-income areas in the US were exposed to higher average PM2.5 levels than higher-income areas. The study also found that disparities in exposure to PM2.5 relative to safety standards have been increasing over time among racial and ethnic groups.
A 2008 study found that communities with higher African American populations and areas with higher unemployment or higher use of public transportation faced a greater risk of premature death. A 2016 study of New Jersey residents found that the risk of dying early from long-term exposure to particle pollution was higher in communities with larger African American populations, lower home values, and lower median incomes. Studies of Atlanta, GA, found that particle pollution increased the risk of asthma attacks in areas with high poverty rates and among people eligible for Medicaid.
The American Lung Association has also reported that poorer people and some racial and ethnic groups often face higher exposure to pollutants and may experience greater responses to pollution. A 2012 study found that unemployed people, those with low incomes or low education, and non-Hispanic blacks were more likely to live in areas with higher exposures to particle pollution. Furthermore, a study by the US EPA found that white people are exposed to lower than average concentrations of pollutants, while people of colour experience greater than average exposures, with this disparity holding across states, urban and rural areas, and income levels.
These disparities are a result of systemic racism and decades of discriminatory housing policies that have pushed people of colour and pollution together. While income is often assumed to be the underlying cause of racial-ethnic disparities, studies have shown that race and ethnicity, independent of income, drive air pollution exposure disparities.
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Industrial pollution
The Industrial Revolution brought about advances in manufacturing and technology, leading to an increase in factories and industrial activities. This, in turn, resulted in the emission of smoke and pollutants into the air, water, and land. The effects of industrial pollution on the environment were soon observed, and it was identified as a contributing factor to wildlife extinction and global warming.
Industrial facilities emit millions of pounds of carcinogens into the air each year, with potential exposure to millions of people. Certain demographic groups, such as African Americans, Hispanics, Latinos, and populations experiencing poverty, are disproportionately affected by these emissions.
To combat industrial pollution, various legislation and regulations have been enacted. In the United States, the Clean Air Act of 1963 aimed to protect citizens from airborne pollutants, while the Clean Water Act of 1972 focused on maintaining and restoring water quality by preventing pollution sources. The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 further emphasised the importance of reducing and preventing pollution at its source.
The management and treatment of industrial waste are crucial to mitigating the impact of industrial pollution. By properly incorporating waste disposal into controlled management programs, the pollution of soil, soil microbes, and the environment can be minimised. Additionally, the use of indigenous microorganisms in industrial effluents can help resist, process, metabolise, and detoxify polluted wastewater.
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Longitudinal environmental justice studies
Environmental justice is a crucial aspect of the effort to create and maintain a clean and healthy environment, particularly for communities of colour, who are often forced to live and work in close proximity to pollution sources. This issue, known as environmental racism, has been a longstanding battle for these communities.
Another study, focusing on the question of "which came first, people or pollution?", aimed to determine whether hazardous waste sites attracted people of colour or if demographic changes led to a higher concentration of people of colour around these sites. This national-level study was the first to conduct longitudinal analyses using distance-based methods, contributing to our understanding of the dynamics of facility siting and the role of racial, sociopolitical, and economic factors.
Longitudinal studies in environmental justice often face challenges, such as the time and resources required to build trusting relationships with impacted communities. For example, the CHAMACOS Study, a longitudinal investigation of environmental exposures among children in a California farmworker community, took years to establish partnerships and engage effectively with the community throughout the research process.
To address these challenges, an applied environmental justice framework for exposure science has been proposed. This framework emphasizes the need for researchers to build relationships and establish partnerships with affected communities, incorporating their knowledge and input into the study design. By centering the community, researchers can better understand their needs and address the environmental exposure issues of highest concern.
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Frequently asked questions
There are two possible explanations for the current disparities: either there has been a pattern of placing hazardous waste sites and polluting industries in low-income communities and communities of color, or demographic changes after siting have resulted in a higher concentration of these communities around hazardous sites.
The "people or pollution" question highlights environmental injustices and the need to address them. Disadvantaged regions are often burdened with polluting industries, sacrificing the health of their residents for economic growth. Additionally, people of color and low-income communities are disproportionately impacted by climate change and environmental disasters, as seen in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina.
While there is a significant amount of environmental justice research, most studies focus on the current distribution of environmental hazards rather than the processes that lead to injustices. Methodological differences and the limited number of longitudinal studies examining demographic characteristics over time have also contributed to confusing and contradictory findings.
