Greta Jimenez
China is home to some of the world's biggest and most populous cities (i.e., mega-cities), which often suffer from severe air pollution due to industrial activities, construction, infrastructure development, and high traffic volume. The country's capital, Beijing, has drawn international criticism for its highly publicized levels of pollution, which may explain the government's aggressive targeting of the issue. In 2011, Lanzhou was the most polluted city in China, with Shijiazhuang taking the title in 2016. Five of China's ten most polluted cities are located in the northern province of Hebei, with seven of the top ten worst cities for PM2.5 pollution located in Hebei Province, which surrounds Beijing. The cleanest air in China is found in Tibet, with the city of Linzhi recording a US AQI figure of 50 in December 2020.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Most polluted city in 2011 | Lanzhou |
| Most polluted city in 2013 | Beijing |
| Most polluted city in 2016 | Shijiazhuang |
| Province with most polluted cities | Hebei |
| Number of polluted cities in Hebei province | 5 out of 10 |
| Most polluted cities | Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin |
| Reason for pollution | Industrial activities, continuous construction, infrastructural development, high traffic volume |
| Deaths due to air pollution | 350,000-400,000 |
| Deaths due to poor-quality indoor air | 300,000 |
| Deaths due to poor water quality | 60,000 |
| People without safe and clean drinking water | 500 million |
| People with access to safe air as per EU standards | 1% |
| Cause of cancer in China as per Chinese Ministry of Health | Industrial pollution |
| Cause of death of children | Lead poisoning |
| Cause of algal blooms in oceans | High nutrients in water |
| Cities with improved air quality during COVID-19 | Guangzhou, Wuhan |
| City with best air quality during COVID-19 | Shenzhen |
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What You'll Learn
Beijing's air pollution
Beijing has consistently featured among the cities with the worst air pollution in China and the world. In 2017, it was the only city out of the 20 most polluted cities in China to show improvements in air quality since 2011. However, this progress appears to have stalled, with Beijing still ranking among the most polluted cities in China in 2024 and 2025.
The economic boom in China has also contributed to Beijing's air pollution. As the country has experienced a drastic rise in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), individuals have more wealth to afford motor vehicles. Beijing's roads now have approximately 3.3 million vehicles, with nearly 1200 added each day. Emissions from these vehicles contribute to nearly 70% of the city's air pollution. The introduction of new vehicles with lower emission standards has further exacerbated the problem, as they emit more pollutants than older models.
In addition to vehicle emissions, coal-burning factories on the outskirts of Beijing and nearby cities like Harbin and Hebei contribute to the smog. These factories rely on outdated and inefficient technologies, further worsening air quality. The surge in motorised vehicles, population growth, manufacturing output, and natural factors have all played a part in Beijing's poor air quality.
The consequences of Beijing's air pollution are significant. High levels of harmful emissions have led to hundreds of flight cancellations and frequent road closures due to low visibility. The pollution also poses a serious health threat to the city's residents. Efforts to address this issue have included the introduction of punitive fines and revised tax laws to lower pollution levels, as well as the implementation of clean energy initiatives such as the world's first solar highway in Jinan, the capital of Shandong province.
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Water shortages and pollution
Beijing, the capital of China, exemplifies the challenges of water scarcity and pollution. The city experiences intense water scarcity during the long dry season and heavy flooding during the brief wet season. It is one of the most water-scarce cities globally, with only about 150 cubic meters of renewable water resources per capita annually. The main sources of water supply in Beijing are groundwater, which accounts for two-thirds, and surface water, which accounts for one-third. However, groundwater levels have been declining for decades, and one of the two main rivers supplying the city, the Yongding River, has been abandoned for drinking water due to pollution.
Water pollution is a severe problem in Beijing, with nearly 40% of the city's surface water being too polluted for use. A 2017 water quality report revealed that 1.98 million cubic meters of untreated wastewater were discharged in Beijing in 2015, rendering the water unsafe for agricultural and industrial use. The Miyun Reservoir, Beijing's largest single source of water, provides water for the city's lakes, which were previously fed by springs that have now dried up. The Chaobai River, relatively unpolluted, is crucial for drinking water supply, and its water is impounded by the Miyun Dam.
The Chinese government has implemented various measures to tackle water pollution, including punitive fines and revised tax laws, and has consolidated its land, water, and agriculture ministries into the Ministry for Ecological Environment to improve coordination and address environmental concerns. Despite some improvements in certain cities, such as Beijing, overall pollution levels in China have worsened. The country's rapid development has led to industrial emissions, fossil fuel reliance, and air contaminants producing acid rain, further degrading water quality.
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Soil pollution
China's cities have consistently ranked among the most polluted in the world. The country's capital, Beijing, has attracted international criticism for its highly publicised levels of pollution. Other cities with poor air quality include Shijiazhuang, Lanzhou, Hotan, and Kashgar.
However, the focus of this answer is on soil pollution in China. Soil pollution has contaminated food crops and jeopardized public health. It has been acknowledged as a "grave problem" by Chinese officials, who once labelled soil data a "state secret". Soil pollution is caused by industrial pollution, which has made cancer China's leading cause of death.
In 2000, 36,000 of the 300,000 hectares of basic farmland monitored for harmful heavy metals were found to be more than 12% above the standard. This has resulted in the contamination of food grain and crops, with farmlands surrounding a tile factory in Dingshu, Jiangsu Province, no longer suitable for growing crops due to heavy metal contamination. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes soil pollution to be a threat to the environment, food safety, and sustainable agriculture.
China has made some progress in addressing soil pollution. In 2013, the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) admitted that "cancer villages" existed in China, including the area around Lake Tai and the villages of Fenshui and Zhoutie. Civil society experts estimate that there are 450 cancer villages in China, and the phenomenon is spreading. However, the Chinese government has been criticized for its slow response to the issue and its pursuit of economic growth at the expense of the environment.
Overall, soil pollution in China is a serious issue that has contaminated farmland, threatened public health, and led to the spread of cancer villages. While there are some signs that the Chinese government is beginning to address the problem, more action is needed to protect the environment and public health.
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Electronic waste
China is the world's largest importer and producer of electronic waste, with over 70% of all global e-waste ending up in its territory. In 2011, China produced 2.3 million tons of electronic waste, and this amount is expected to increase as the Chinese economy grows.
The city of Guiyu in Guangdong Province has been described as the largest electronic waste site in the world. In 2005, there were 60,000 e-waste workers in Guiyu, who processed more than 100 truckloads of waste transported to the 52-square-kilometre area every day. The constant influx of e-waste, coupled with inadequate facilities, has led to Guiyu being nicknamed the "electronic graveyard of the world". The health and environmental issues caused by the e-waste in Guiyu have greatly concerned international organizations such as Greenpeace and the United Nations Environment Programme.
The e-waste business in Guiyu generates up to $75 million per year, with the average worker making barely $1.50 per day. The work involves recovering valuable metals and parts within discarded electronics piles. The processing of e-waste releases toxic smoke and fumes, which have devastating effects on the environment and the health of residents. Studies have shown that workers in China's informal e-waste sector have extremely high levels of hazardous materials in their systems, and children in Guiyu have been found to have abnormally high levels of lead in their blood.
In recent years, the Chinese government and international community have taken action to regulate e-waste management. In 2012, China adopted the extended producer responsibility (EPR) system, which holds manufacturers responsible for the environmentally safe management and recycling of their products. The government has also promoted technical upgrades in informal workshops, such as replacing coal-fired grills with electrical heaters to reduce leaked toxins when treating circuit boards. However, ineffective enforcement, legislative loopholes, and the prevalence of informal recycling have hindered efforts to mitigate the consequences of e-waste.
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COVID-19 lockdown's impact
Chinese cities have consistently ranked among the most polluted in the world. The most polluted cities are heavily concentrated in the northern province of Hebei, Henan Province, and the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, known as Jing-Jin-Ji.
The COVID-19 lockdowns impacted the pollution levels in China. The pandemic caused significant negative economic impacts, and the resumption of work post-pandemic may have led to more aggressive economic growth, potentially exacerbating pollution levels. During the lockdown period, people reduced their mobility and used more private transportation, which may have contributed to a decrease in public transport usage even after the pandemic.
Several studies have used objective variables like air pollutants to estimate the impact of COVID-19 on the urban transportation system. Results indicate that commuting patterns changed significantly before, during, and after the pandemic. The use of reactant gases and a narrow time scale may have weakened the results.
The impact of the lockdown on pollution levels showed a significant reduction in the early stages of the lockdown and a steady increase during the later stages. This can be attributed to less-to-no impact from industrial activities and vehicular emissions, as well as cleaner air masses from the upwind region. The findings suggest that adopting cleaner fuel technology and avoiding poor combustion activities could significantly reduce ambient air pollution levels.
Overall, the COVID-19 lockdowns had a mixed impact on pollution levels in China, with initial reductions followed by increases during the reopening phases. The pandemic and subsequent lockdowns highlighted the relationship between economic activity and pollution levels, as well as the potential for long-term behavioural changes in commuting patterns.
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Frequently asked questions
While there is no clear answer to this question, Beijing is often mentioned as one of the most polluted cities in China. In 2014, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region recorded an annual average PM2.5 concentration of 93 µg/m³. Other cities that are often mentioned as highly polluted include Shijiazhuang, Lanzhou, Shanghai, and Tianjin.
The main sources of air pollution in China are industrial emissions, fossil fuel reliance, and unfavorable weather conditions. China's large and populous cities often suffer from severe air pollution due to major industrial activities, continuous construction, and high traffic volume.
Air pollution in China poses a serious health threat to its citizens. Studies have associated exposure to air pollution with illnesses ranging from common influenza to chronic diseases, including mortality. According to the Chinese Ministry of Health, industrial pollution has made cancer the leading cause of death in the country. Every year, air pollution alone kills hundreds of thousands of citizens.
