Air Pollution: The First Warning Bells

The first warning of air pollution came in the 13th and 14th centuries in England, with the increased use of sea coal. Royalty frequently fled London for the countryside to escape the smoke. The first major change from routine pre-industrial air pollution came with the Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain and other European countries, along with the United States, between 1820 and 1840. This transition to new manufacturing processes led to unprecedented levels of air pollution due to increased emissions and the combustion of coal. In 1863, air pollution from the British chemical industry spurred the Alkali Act, intended to reduce hydrogen chloride emissions during alkali production.

The Industrial Revolution

However, the Industrial Revolution also ushered in a wave of pollution and environmental degradation. The advent of factories and the reliance on coal combustion led to unprecedented levels of air pollution. The growing population, particularly in urban areas, further exacerbated the situation, with private households contributing to the rise in domestic emissions from burning coal for heating and cooking. The air quality in cities suffered first, but the problem soon spread across countries, becoming a global issue.

The Second Industrial Revolution, which occurred from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, further intensified these issues. This phase, often called the Technological Revolution, introduced electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine, leading to mass production and the expansion of heavy industries. Countries like the UK, Germany, and France rapidly industrialized, resulting in exponential increases in energy consumption and resource extraction.

The cumulative environmental strain of each phase of industrialization caused significant increases in air pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions. Cities struggled to accommodate the growing workforce, leading to overcrowding and inadequate sanitation. The lack of clean water and sewage issues made the population vulnerable to diseases such as cholera.

The Great Smog of London, 1952

The Great Smog of London in 1952 was a severe air pollution event that affected London, England, from Friday, December 5, to Tuesday, December 9, 1952. It was caused by a combination of industrial pollution and high-pressure weather conditions, specifically an anticyclone and windless conditions, which trapped cool, stagnant air under a layer of warmer air. This weather pattern, combined with the increased use of coal for heating and industrial activities, led to the formation of a thick layer of smog that blanketed the city. The smog caused a major disruption by reducing visibility and penetrating indoor areas, far more severely than previous smog events, known as "pea-soupers".

The Great Smog had a significant impact on the health of London's residents, with government medical reports estimating up to 4,000 deaths directly attributed to the smog and 100,000 people falling ill due to respiratory issues. More recent research, including a 2004 study, suggests that the total number of fatalities was significantly higher, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 deaths. The long-term effects of the smog were also observed, with individuals who were foetuses or infants at the time experiencing lower intelligence and worse respiratory health later in life.

The smog caused widespread disruption to transportation, with people abandoning their cars on the road and ambulance services struggling to operate. Indoor events, such as plays and concerts, were canceled due to low visibility, and crime rates on the streets increased. The smog also had a severe impact on livestock, with herds of cattle in Smithfield reportedly choking to death.

The Great Smog of London served as a turning point in the history of environmentalism. It led to the adoption of the Clean Air Act in 1956, which aimed to tackle air pollution from industrial activities. This resulted in significant reductions in emissions in urban areas and the closure of polluting industrial infrastructure. Additionally, financial incentives were offered to encourage households to transition from open coal fires to alternative heating methods, such as gas fires or coke, which produces minimal smoke.

The event also left a mark on popular culture, with references to the smog appearing in literature and media. For example, an episode of "The Goon Show" entitled "Forog," broadcast on the BBC Home Service in 1954, satirized the killer fog crisis. The Great Smog also served as the setting for the Doctor Who audio play "The Creeping Death" and novels such as "Amorality Tale" and "Visibility."

The Clean Air Act, 1956

The Clean Air Act of 1956 was a critical piece of legislation aimed at tackling the severe air pollution and smog caused by coal burning and industrial activities in the United Kingdom, particularly in London. The Act was a response to the "Great Smog" of 1952, which had devastating consequences, claiming the lives of around 4,000 people in its immediate aftermath and causing a total of 12,000 deaths. The smog was so dense that it disrupted transportation and public events, serving as a stark reminder of the deadly nature of air pollution.

The Clean Air Act of 1956 introduced several measures to reduce air pollution and protect public health. One key provision was the establishment of "smoke control areas" in towns and cities, where only smokeless fuels could be burned. This shift towards cleaner sources of heat, such as electricity and gas, significantly reduced smoke pollution and sulphur dioxide emissions from household fires. The Act also included provisions to prevent the emission of dark smoke from chimneys, requiring new furnaces to be smokeless and empowering local authorities to enforce higher and more effective chimneys on buildings.

The Act recognised the importance of minimising emitted grit and dust, granting the Minister the authority to define limits for these pollutants. Additionally, the legislation addressed the pollution caused by industrial activities, giving local authorities the power to regulate emissions of smoke, grit, dust, and fumes from industrial premises and furnaces. This led to the closure of many urban power stations and other polluting industrial infrastructure, significantly reducing emissions in urban areas.

The Clean Air Act of 1956 was a groundbreaking step in addressing the pressing issue of air pollution in the United Kingdom. It demonstrated the government's commitment to public health and the environment, setting a precedent for future environmental legislation. The Act's impact extended beyond the reduction of emissions, as it also sparked important conversations about the role of public regulation and the scope of legitimate government intervention in addressing societal challenges.

Coal consumption and combustion

The first warning of air pollution came in December 1952, when London was affected by one of the most severe air pollution events in its history, known as the Great Smog of London. This disaster led to the adoption of the Clean Air Act in 1956, which aimed to tackle air pollution from industrial activities.

The growing population also contributed to the issue, as private households burned coal for heating and cooking, adding to domestic emissions. As global trade expanded, air pollution became a larger-scale problem, spreading across countries and becoming one of the harshest consequences of industrial growth worldwide. Europe and North America, the first continents to experience rapid industrial growth, suffered the most significant impacts of emissions for most of the second half of the twentieth century.

During this period, global emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) peaked, with Europe and North America dominating emissions and experiencing the adverse effects. Acid rain, resulting from air pollution, became a significant issue in the 1960s, affecting surfaces, freshwater ecosystems, and contributing to a loss of biodiversity. The Clean Air Act of 1956 led to significant reductions in urban emissions and the closure of polluting industrial infrastructure, helping to address the issue of air pollution in urban areas.

While emissions controls in Europe and North America began to curb SO2 and NOx emissions, emissions in East and South Asia grew strongly, dominating global emissions by the early twenty-first century. By 2020, widespread emission controls had resulted in declining SO2 and NOx emissions globally, while ammonia emissions continued to grow unchecked. In recent years, coal consumption has continued to rise in non-OECD countries, driven by economic growth, electricity demand, and lower hydropower generation, with China and India jointly accounting for 71% of global coal consumption.

Air pollution in the 13th and 14th centuries

Air pollution has been a problem since before the Industrial Revolution, with complaints about air pollution and its links to fuel use dating back over seven hundred years. Air pollution first emerged in the 13th century due to coal burning.

13th Century

Originally known as "sea coal", coal was shipped from Newcastle to London as ballast. It was first imported into London in small quantities at the beginning of the 13th century, and its trade was primarily used by smiths, lime burners, and other industries on a small scale in London and English coastal towns. The smoke from sea coal fires was considered a nuisance in London, and it was remarked that "the air is infected and corrupted to the peril of those frequenting and dwelling in those parts". In 1288, a commission of inquiry was appointed following complaints by those living near lime kilns. While it is unclear whether these complaints were due to health concerns or other reasons, a change in attitudes towards pollution began to emerge. During the 13th century, the widespread installation of fireplaces, flues, and chimneys in homes was adopted throughout all classes of society.

14th Century

In the 14th century, supplies of wood fuels became more attainable and affordable, making them the preferred fuel choice over sea coal. However, the use of coal continued to have significant impacts on air quality. During the years of the Black Death, from 1347 to 1351, it was believed that the smoke from coal drove away the plague due to its cleansing action of sulphurous smoke. Additionally, the medieval theory of "miasma" suggested that disease was linked to corruption of the air. As a result, even in the 14th century, it was prohibited to deposit dung, offal, or entrails into rivers or waters as it was believed that they would infect the air and cause illnesses.

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