Helena Joyce
Pollution has been a problem since humans first congregated in large groups and established permanent settlements. Ancient human settlements are often identified by their waste, such as shell mounds and rubble heaps. The burning of wood and coal, as well as the use of horses in concentrated areas, contributed to the pollution of ancient cities. Metal forging, in particular, marked a significant increase in air pollution levels outside the home. However, it was not until the Industrial Revolution that pollution became a widespread and pressing issue, with industrial cities in Europe and the United States facing a new kind of pollution from factories and industries. The Great Smog of 1952 in London, which killed at least 4000 people, prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, including the Clean Air Act of 1956.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First recognition of pollution | 400 BC |
| First recognition of water pollution | 1897 |
| First recognition of air pollution | 18th century |
| First major air pollution incident | 1952 |
| First federal attempt to control air pollution | 1955 |
| First major water pollution incident | 1969 |
| First federal attempt to control water pollution | 1972 |
| Pollution as a widespread issue | 2022 |
| Pollution as a cause of human death | 2020 |
| Earliest evidence of pollution | 11,000 years ago |
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What You'll Learn
Pollution has been a problem since the appearance of our earliest ancestors
Pollution has indeed been a problem since the appearance of our earliest ancestors. The word "pollution" generally implies that contaminants have an anthropogenic source, or in other words, a source created by human activities. As groups of people first congregated and settled in one place, they began to generate waste, such as shell mounds and rubble heaps, which polluted the environment.
As populations grew, the issue of pollution became more significant. Ancient cities were often fouled by human waste and debris, and the establishment of permanent settlements led to increased pollution levels. The use of coal for fuel around 1000 CE caused considerable air pollution, and the burning of coal in factories and homes has continued to contribute to air pollution over the centuries.
During the Middle Ages, unsanitary conditions caused by human and animal waste led to the spread of diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever across Europe. The "Black Death" of 1347, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, was another devastating example of the impact of pollution on human health.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, marked a significant turning point in the history of pollution. The magnitude of emissions of primary pollutants increased, and highly polluted cities became a defining issue. Episodes of "smog" in cities like New York and London during the 19th century resulted in numerous deaths, and air pollution continued to take a toll on human health well into the 20th century.
The recognition of pollution as a serious threat to human health and the environment has a long history as well. As early as 400 BC, Hippocrates acknowledged the detrimental effects of air pollution. Written accounts of air pollution from various countries over the next two millennia further emphasized its impact.
While pollution has been a concern for millennia, the development of environmental regulations and legislation to address it is more recent. The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 in the United States, for example, was a response to the severe air pollution incident in Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948. The Clean Water Act of 1972 was prompted by a major fire on the Cuyahoga River in 1969, which sparked public outrage and the need for action against water pollution. These incidents and others like them have led to the creation of legislation and organizations dedicated to improving sewage treatment, setting limits on industrial discharges, and protecting the environment.
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The start of agriculture 11,000 years ago
The start of agriculture about 11,000 years ago is one of the proposed starting points for when pollution was recognised. The transition to agriculture is considered one of the most significant milestones in human evolution.
The act of cultivating plants and using them in ways that changed the plants themselves, a process called domestication, led to a profound landscape and cultural transformation. This transformation is known as agriculture. Early signs of domestication and cultivation can be seen in the archaeobotanical records from the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Here, after the Younger Dryas period, wild plants began to change in two remarkable ways: their seeds grew larger, and their rachis became semi-tough. These changes occurred once the climate became warmer and more stable, about 11,700 years ago.
The eight Neolithic founder crops were cultivated in the Levant around 9500 BC. These were emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chickpeas, and flax. Wheat was the first crop to be grown and harvested on a significant scale. The cultivation of these crops and the domestication of animals, such as sheep and pigs, allowed humans to produce and store food, which led to the establishment of permanent settlements.
With the establishment of permanent settlements, pollution became a problem. Ancient human settlements are often identified by their wastes, such as shell mounds and rubble heaps. As settlements grew, so did the amount of human waste and debris, leading to unsanitary conditions. These conditions provided the perfect environment for deadly bacteria to flourish, resulting in diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever, which caused epidemics throughout Europe during the Middle Ages.
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The advent of the nuclear era in 1945
The use of the word 'pollution' generally implies that contaminants are anthropogenic, or human-made. Pollution has been associated with human settlements since ancient times, with ancient cities often being recognised as noxious places fouled by human waste and debris. The burning of coal for fuel around 1000 CE caused significant air pollution, and the emergence of factories and the consumption of coal in the 19th century further exacerbated the issue.
The Trinity test on July 16, 1945, marked the beginning of the Atomic Age, also known as the Atomic Era. This was the first successful test of a plutonium bomb, and it changed the course of history. The test thrust the world into the nuclear era, altering warfare and geopolitical relations. Less than a month later, the United States dropped nuclear weapons on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, demonstrating the ability to obliterate large areas and kill masses of people in seconds. This large-scale use of nuclear technology ushered in profound sociopolitical changes and technological advancements, as well as fears of nuclear warfare and the Cold War.
The Atomic Age also brought about new concerns related to radioactive pollution. Nuclear weapons testing during this period contaminated numerous sites worldwide with radioactive waste, causing severe environmental damage and increasing human exposure to radiation. The United States, the USSR, the United Kingdom, France, and China became nuclear powers during 1945-1964, and the arms race led to a significant number of nuclear tests in various environments. These tests contributed to the current environmental contamination issues faced by many sites.
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The Industrial Revolution (1780s-1830s)
The Industrial Revolution, which took place between the 1780s and 1830s, marked a significant period of scientific and technological development. This revolution, which began in the UK, transformed economies by shifting from agricultural assistance to manufacturing-based economies, with heavy reliance on industrial machinery. This machinery, powered by steam, allowed for the creation of semi-automated factory systems, enabling mass production and improved efficiency.
However, the Industrial Revolution also had a profound environmental impact. It marked the start of our intensive use of fossil fuels, which are now recognised as the driving force behind climate change. Coal, in particular, became a key factor, with its popularity as a fuel source spreading across Europe, Asia, and the United States. This was due to its ability to power factories, ships, trains, and provide heat for many homes. As a result, there was a sharp increase in carbon emissions and harmful environmental pollution.
The burning of coal led to a rapid increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the atmosphere, which had a significant impact on the climate. This was further exacerbated by deforestation, particularly in North America, as English colonists cleared forests for agricultural land and to make way for growing cities. The combination of increased coal burning and deforestation resulted in a substantial rise in greenhouse gas emissions, with the effects of these emissions still being felt today.
Cities like Manchester, the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, became heavily industrialised and polluted. The air was filled with noxious, sooty coal smoke, leading to respiratory diseases and increased mortality among residents. The smoke, dirt, and stench produced by Manchester's chimneys appalled visitors, and the city became known for its ""smoke nuisance". The impact of pollution on the health of urban populations was devastating, particularly for working-class families living close to industrial sources.
In summary, the Industrial Revolution of the 1780s to 1830s brought about significant technological advancements and economic growth, but it also set in motion a period of intense environmental degradation and pollution, the effects of which are still being addressed today.
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The Age of Humans, or Anthropocene
The concept of "The Age of Humans", or the Anthropocene, refers to the period in which humanity has become a dominant force of planetary change. The term was coined in the 1980s and later popularised by atmospheric chemist Paul J. Crutzen and diatom researcher Eugene F. Stoermer in 2000. It is widely accepted that our species, Homo Sapiens, has significantly impacted the Earth and its inhabitants, leading to lasting and potentially irreversible changes to its systems, environment, processes and biodiversity.
The Anthropocene is characterised by accelerating geophysical and biochemical changes, particularly in the 20th and 21st centuries. These changes include global warming, ocean acidification, biodiversity loss, habitat destruction, and large-scale natural resource extraction. Humans have directly affected at least 83% of the planet's viable land surface, influencing everything from ecosystems to the geochemistry of the Earth.
The beginning of the Anthropocene is a subject of debate among scientists. Some argue that it is impossible to identify a specific start date because human activity is diverse and widespread, making it challenging to distinguish recent strata from earlier ones. However, various potential start dates have been proposed, including:
- The 1950s: This decade witnessed elevated markers such as carbon particles and nitrates from burning fossil fuels and the widespread application of chemical fertilisers. The highest global concentration of radionuclides was also estimated to have occurred in 1965.
- The mid-20th century: Marked by the development of early farming, land clearance in the Americas, and the start of the Atomic Age.
- The Neolithic: The emergence of agriculture and the mass extinction of large vertebrates.
While the Anthropocene has not been officially recognised as a geological epoch, it remains a widely used term to describe the current era of significant human impact on the planet.
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Frequently asked questions
Humans have been polluting the Earth since prehistoric times when humans created the first fires. However, pollution became a more serious problem when permanent settlements were established, and ancient human settlements are often identified by their waste.
Air pollution has been recognised as a threat to human health since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC.
Pollution became a significant issue in the US in the early 20th century, as progressive reformers took issue with air pollution caused by coal burning, water pollution caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused by horse manure.
The public started to pay attention to pollution in the US between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed several environmental acts.
The UK started to address air pollution in 1956, when the Great Smog of 1952 killed at least 4,000 people, prompting the Clean Air Act.
