Helena Joyce
China's pollution problem has been a significant concern for many years, with severe environmental degradation and public health repercussions. The country's rapid economic growth, fueled by heavy industry and urbanization, has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly from the burning of fossil fuels like coal. While China has made notable progress in reducing air pollution in recent years, there were several instances when pollution levels peaked. For example, in January 2013, official Beijing data showed an average AQI of over 300, with readings of up to 800 at individual recording stations. In 2016, Beijing's yearly average PM2.5 was 73 μg/m3, and the city experienced 39 severely polluted days. China's pollution has also spread internationally, with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides falling as acid rain on neighboring countries.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of all-time high pollution | January 2013 |
| Average AQI in Beijing | Over 300 |
| Highest AQI reading in Beijing | 800 |
| Date of highest AQI reading | 12 January 2013 |
| US Embassy AQI reading | Over 755 |
| Date of US Embassy reading | 1 January 2013 |
| Number of severely polluted days in Beijing in 2016 | 39 |
| Yearly average PM2.5 in Beijing in 2016 | 73 μg/m3 |
| Number of premature deaths due to air and water pollution (up to) | 760,000 per year |
| Number of premature deaths due to air pollution | 350,000-400,000 per year |
| Number of premature deaths due to poor-quality indoor air | 300,000 per year |
| Number of premature deaths due to poor water quality | 60,000 per year |
| Number of deaths from air pollution since 2000 | Over 30 million |
| Number of people without access to safe and clean drinking water | 500 million |
| Percentage of "city people" with access to safe air | 1% |
| China's rank in global CO2 emissions in 2023 | 1 |
| China's annual emissions of greenhouse gases and mercury | Highest in the world |
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What You'll Learn
China's economic growth and pollution
China's economic growth has historically relied on fossil fuels, particularly coal, which has resulted in serious air pollution issues. The country's rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to a massive increase in energy consumption, with most of its power plants lacking flue gas treatment, contributing to high levels of particulate matter in the air.
The consequences of this pollution are dire, with up to 760,000 people dying prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution, according to a 2007 draft report by the World Bank and SEPA. Air pollution alone causes 350,000–400,000 premature deaths annually, with an additional 300,000 deaths attributed to poor indoor air quality. Lead poisoning is a significant issue, especially among children, and has been linked to metal smelters and the fast-growing battery industry.
China's economic growth targets have had a significant impact on local environmental pollution. The "riding a seesaw" strategy, where different pollutants are treated differently to meet economic targets, has often resulted in environmental regulation relaxation and blocked industrial structure upgrades. The focus on economic growth has led to a sacrifice in the local ecological environment, with the country's miraculous economic growth coming at a cost.
However, China has made some improvements in environmental protection in recent years. Since 2013, there has been a strategic transformation towards air quality management, targeting the reduction of fine particulate matter (PM2.5). In 2016, Beijing's yearly average PM2.5 showed a 9.9% improvement compared to 2015, with five fewer severely polluted days. China is also increasing its forest cover, which is a positive step towards reducing air and water pollution.
Overall, China's economic growth and pollution are intricately linked, with the country facing the challenge of balancing economic development and environmental improvement. While there have been some positive steps towards addressing pollution, the country continues to struggle with the environmental consequences of its rapid economic growth.
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Lead poisoning in children
China's pollution levels have been a cause for concern for many years, with the country's rapid economic growth relying heavily on fossil fuels. While there have been improvements in recent years, China's pollution issues have had a significant impact on public health, particularly among children.
Lead poisoning is one of the most common paediatric health problems in China. A 2006 review of existing data suggested that a third of Chinese children suffer from elevated serum lead levels. Lead poisoning can have severe and long-lasting effects on children's physical and mental development, even leading to fatalities in some cases. Infants and young children are especially vulnerable as they absorb lead more easily, and it is more harmful to them than to adults.
Sources of lead exposure in China include lead-based paint and lead-contaminated dust in older buildings, as well as contaminated air, water, and soil. In July 2025, a lead poisoning case in Tianshui, Gansu Province, made headlines when it was revealed that hundreds of children from a private kindergarten had been poisoned by lead-contaminated food. This incident sparked outrage across China, with authorities finding that provincial officials and hospital staff had attempted to cover up the severity of the situation by tampering with blood tests.
The Chinese government has taken steps to address the issue of lead poisoning in children, providing medical and psychosocial support to affected families and launching investigations into food safety. UNICEF has also offered support to strengthen food safety measures and protect children from lead exposure. In response to the Tianshui incident, the Chinese government published national guidelines for the provision of meals on campuses, mandating the testing of new food batches and centralised procurement of rice, flour, and cooking oil.
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Air pollution and health issues
China's rapid economic development has come at a cost to the environment, with the country facing an unprecedented environmental health crisis. Outdoor and indoor air pollution, water shortages and pollution, desertification, and soil pollution have become more pronounced, subjecting Chinese residents to significant health risks.
Outdoor air pollution is the biggest environmental challenge for public health in Chinese cities. The sources of air pollution have evolved from traditional coal combustion to a combination of coal-burning and vehicle emissions. China's air pollution situation is similar to that of developed countries in the 1960s. The high emissions from power plants, particularly the lack of flue gas treatment, contribute significantly to particulate pollution. Fine particles can cause asthma, bronchitis, and acute and chronic respiratory issues, and may even lead to premature death. Lead poisoning is also a significant issue, with one-third of Chinese children suffering from elevated serum lead levels, often due to pollution from metal smelters and the battery industry.
The Chinese government has demonstrated a commitment to tackling these issues. In 2007, China reported a reduction in national total emissions of chemical oxygen demand in water and sulfur dioxide in the air. In 2012, stricter air pollution monitoring of ozone and PM2.5 was ordered, and in 2013, an anti-pollution campaign was launched, focusing on PM2.5, deemed the most harmful particulate matter. As a result, the average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 50% from 2013 to 2019, and China continued to improve air quality during the Covid era. According to a University of Chicago study, the decline in global pollution levels can be attributed to China's success in reducing pollution.
Despite these improvements, China's battle against pollution is ongoing. While blue skies have returned, with a significant increase in good air quality days, it is too early to declare victory. The country still faces challenges in ensuring safe and clean drinking water for its citizens, with 500 million lacking access. Additionally, light pollution, affecting both wildlife and human health, has been on the rise in nearly all urban cities since the 2000s.
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Water pollution and health issues
China's pollution levels reached an all-time high in 2013, with Beijing recording an average Air Quality Index (AQI) of over 300, and individual recording stations reporting readings of up to 800. The country has long struggled with severe pollution, primarily due to its reliance on fossil fuels and the lack of emission control technologies in power plants.
China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization have resulted in widespread water pollution. Over 500 million people in China lack access to safe and clean drinking water. This issue is exacerbated by inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure, leading to the contamination of drinking water sources with animal and human waste. By 2000, the volume of wastewater produced had almost doubled from 1990 levels, reaching approximately 78 billion tons. This has had serious consequences for public health, with an increased risk of infectious and parasitic diseases, exposure to industrial chemicals, heavy metals, and algal toxins.
The lack of coordination between environmental and public health objectives further exacerbates the problem. The complex and fragmented system for managing water resources, and the treatment of water as a common property resource, means that water quality and quantity issues are likely to become more acute. The Chinese government has recognized the urgency of the situation and has taken steps to address it, such as issuing the Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution in 2015.
The health impacts of water pollution are evident in areas like the Huai River Basin, where villages with highly polluted water have experienced significantly increased cancer mortality rates, drawing public and media attention. Additionally, a 2006 review revealed that one-third of Chinese children suffer from elevated serum lead levels, which has been attributed to pollution from metal smelters and the battery industry.
Water pollution in China is not just a local issue, as the pollution has spread internationally. For example, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from China fall as acid rain on Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo, and can even reach Los Angeles in the United States.
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China's coal reliance
China's pollution reached an all-time high in 2013, with record smog in Northeast China causing the closure of schools and Harbin Airport. The country's pollution has been linked to its reliance on coal, which has been the main source of energy for centuries.
China's coal consumption was substantial even in pre-modern times, with coal being burned for heat as early as the 3rd century BC. In the 11th century, coke-burning blast furnaces were used for iron production in northern China, and by the 12th century, coal had replaced charcoal in the capital, Kaifeng.
Today, China is the world's largest coal producer and importer, with coal accounting for over half of global production. The country operates thousands of coal mines, with most of its reserves located in Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi. In 2023, China produced 4.71 billion tonnes of coal, and coal imports reached a record high that year as well.
China's heavy dependence on coal has had significant environmental consequences, contributing to high levels of air pollution in its cities. According to the World Bank, Chinese cities had the highest levels of particulate matter in 2004 out of the cities studied. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has linked fine particles from air pollution to respiratory issues and premature death.
However, China has been pursuing green and sustainable development in recent years, with a rapid expansion of its renewable energy sector. The percentage of China's energy generated by coal has decreased in the past decade, and the government has forced the closure of old, inefficient plants. China is now the world's largest producer of wind and solar energy, with significant investments in other renewable sources as well. The country leads the world in the production and sales of electric vehicles, and its high-speed rail network and urban metro systems provide an alternative to air travel.
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Frequently asked questions
The air pollution in China was at a record high in 2012 and 2013, with Beijing recording an average Air Quality Index (AQI) of over 300 in January 2013. The US Embassy recorded even higher figures, measuring over 755 on 1 January and 800 by 12 January 2013.
The primary cause of China's air pollution is its heavy reliance on coal, the most readily available but polluting energy source. China's industrial growth and rapid urbanization have resulted in high levels of carbon emissions, which have contributed to the country's notorious air pollution problem.
In response to the high levels of air pollution, the Chinese government has implemented several measures. In 2013, the State Council issued an Action Plan to reduce PM2.5 levels by over 10% from 2012 to 2017. Beijing, the capital, aimed to reduce PM2.5 by 25% during the same period. The government also pledged to reduce coal consumption by closing polluting mills, factories, and smelters and transitioning to eco-friendly energy sources. Additionally, China signed the 2015 Paris Agreement, committing to cut emissions and invest in renewable energy.
