Bronte Wells
The concept of pollution and its negative impacts has been recognised since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC. Ancient human settlements were frequently identified by their waste, and cities in ancient times were often fouled by human waste and debris. However, the establishment of permanent settlements by large numbers of people marked the point at which pollution became a more serious problem. The industrial revolution and the growth of the human population further exacerbated the issue, and pollution became a universal problem. In the 19th century, episodes of smog in cities led to many deaths, and in the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect the environment from pollution began to develop among the general public. Since then, clean air and water legislation has been passed and revised to address the issue of pollution.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First recognition of air pollution | Around 400 BC by Hippocrates |
| First recognition of water pollution | 1936 when the Cuyahoga River caught fire |
| First recognition of plastic pollution | 1950s when single-use plastics became common |
| First recognition of thermal pollution | 1980s when experts noticed accelerated forest loss |
| First recognition of light pollution | N/A |
| First recognition of noise pollution | N/A |
| First legislation against air pollution | 1955 with the Air Pollution Control Act |
| First legislation against water pollution | 1972 with the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act) |
| First legislation against soil pollution | N/A |
| First legislation against radioactive pollution | N/A |
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What You'll Learn
Ancient societies and pollution
Pollution has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors. As human populations increased, so did the prevalence of bacteria and disease. Permanent settlements and the establishment of cities in ancient times led to pollution from human waste, debris, and garbage. Ancient human settlements are often identified by their waste, such as shell mounds and rubble heaps. Cities in ancient times were often unsanitary, leading to the spread of diseases like cholera and typhoid fever.
The use of coal for fuel, which began around 1000 CE, significantly contributed to air pollution. The conversion of coal to coke for iron smelting in the 17th century further exacerbated this issue. During the Middle Ages and into the early modern era, European cities struggled with unsanitary conditions, leading to devastating epidemics such as the Black Death in 1347.
Ancient civilizations also contributed to environmental degradation through their land use practices. A study by Lucas Stephens and colleagues, published in Science in 2019, revealed that early humans globally were impacting their environments as far back as 10,000 years ago. This impact became more pronounced around 3,000 years ago with the advent of intensive farming practices, deforestation, and domestication of plants and animals.
In South America, the Inca Empire engaged in metallurgy, releasing pollutants into the atmosphere as early as 1480. The Spanish conquest of South America in the 16th century further exacerbated pollution, as they introduced new techniques that released lead dust into the atmosphere.
While ancient societies did not face the same level of industrial pollution as later periods, they were not immune to the negative consequences of pollution on health and the environment.
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Industrial pollution
The history of pollution is a long one, with evidence of ancient human settlements being recognised by their waste. However, the scale and severity of pollutants has increased significantly with the advent of the industrial age.
The Industrial Revolution brought about a new kind of pollution, with waste from industries and factories. From 1750 onwards, polluted water and air were seen as inevitable side effects of industrialization. By the nineteenth century, pollutants had become constituent elements of modernity. The burning of coal in factories and homes, as well as the increase in automobiles, caused air pollution in cities like New York and London, resulting in many deaths.
The twentieth century saw new and massive scales of pollution, with the use of chemicals in warfare, the ascendancy of oil, and a lifestyle defined by consumption. The Great War was the first highly polluting energy and chemical conflict, with oil production increasing to meet the demands of the warring powers.
In the 1940s and 1950s, episodes of severe air pollution in Donora, Pennsylvania, and on the Cuyahoga River, resulted in the creation of the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, the first federal attempt to control air pollution. The Clean Air Act of 1990 further addressed this issue by setting limits on the discharge of air pollutants from industrial facilities and motor vehicles.
Water pollution was also a significant issue, with the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, catching fire several times between 1936 and 1969 due to the concentration of debris and oil on the water's surface. This prompted the nation to take immediate action against water pollution, leading to the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), commonly called the Clean Water Act.
The publication of Rachel Carson's book *Silent Spring* in 1962 also played a crucial role in raising awareness about environmental damage caused by pesticides and other chemicals. This led to the passing of major environmental legislation in many countries, including the Clean Air Act (1970) and the Clean Water Act (1972).
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Water pollution
In the 1800s, people began to understand the link between unsanitary living conditions, water contamination, and disease epidemics. This awareness prompted major cities, particularly in the United States, to implement waste control measures and build sewage systems. However, with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, rapid industrialization, and a growing population, the focus shifted to industrial development, and waterways became dumping grounds for sewage, trash, agricultural runoff, and industrial waste.
The Cuyahoga River in Ohio became a symbol of this environmental neglect, catching fire multiple times between 1936 and 1969 due to the buildup of oily debris on its surface. The 1969 blaze, in particular, sparked public outrage and grassroots activism, leading to the establishment of Earth Day and the creation of environmental protection agencies. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), for instance, was established with the mission "to protect human health by safeguarding the air we breathe, water we drink, and land on which we live."
In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act to address water pollution, and various anti-pollution legislations have followed since. These laws have significantly reduced water pollution, and today, the United States has relatively clean and safe drinking water compared to much of the world. However, water pollution remains a problem, with ongoing threats from chemical pollutants, heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial discharges.
To address today's water pollution challenges, individuals can take simple actions such as reducing plastic consumption, properly disposing of chemicals and oils, maintaining vehicles to prevent leaks, and supporting legislation and organizations dedicated to protecting water resources and promoting sustainable practices.
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Air pollution
Written evidence from Greece dating back 2,400 years indicates that polluted air was recognised as a threat to human health. Hippocrates, around 400 BC, suggested that illnesses were related to air quality, particularly in cities facing damp westerly winds. Writers from Imperial Rome also acknowledged the health impacts of smoke, with Seneca referring to the problem and Frontinus declaring that his contributions to aqueducts and fountains had improved air purity.
In the 19th century, as cities became more populated, industrialised cities across Europe and the United States faced a new kind of pollution from factories and industries. This led to episodes of "smog" in cities like London and New York, resulting in many deaths. London's Great Smog of 1952 lasted nearly a week and caused an estimated 10,000 deaths. This prompted the UK to pass its first Clean Air Act in 1956 to address pollution and smog from coal burning.
The 20th century saw both significant advances in identifying, regulating, and controlling air pollution, as well as some of the most disastrous air pollution events. In 1969, the Cuyahoga River in Ohio caught fire due to debris and oil accumulation, becoming a symbol of environmental neglect and spurring grassroots activism. This led to the creation of the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, the first federal attempt to control air pollution in the United States.
Despite efforts to curb air pollution, it remains a pressing environmental issue today. Asia has emerged as the largest source of SO2 and NOx emissions, and while there have been recent declines in these pollutants, new pollutants continue to be discovered, causing millions of premature deaths worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 91% of the world's population lives in areas where air pollution levels exceed recommended limits. As we strive to prevent climate change and mitigate its irreversible damage, decisive actions are needed to close polluting power plants, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and transition to renewable energy sources.
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Plastic pollution
The realisation that pollution was a problem is not a recent phenomenon. In fact, pollution has been an issue since the emergence of our earliest ancestors, with ancient human settlements being identified by their waste. However, the problem has intensified with increasing human populations, leading to more bacteria, disease, and unsanitary conditions.
Now, specifically focusing on plastic pollution:
The issue of plastic pollution has become increasingly prominent in recent years, with the terms "microplastic," "single-use plastic," and "microfiber" dominating headlines and policy discussions. Plastic pollution primarily refers to the contamination of the ocean, with an estimated five trillion plastic bags used annually, and up to 422 million tonnes of plastic produced each year. Half of this plastic is designed for single-use purposes, ending up as waste in the ocean. The first scientific findings of marine plastic debris were published in the journal Science in 1972, reporting on plastic particles in the Sargasso Sea. This issue gained further attention in 1996 when Captain Charles Moore discovered the "Great Pacific Garbage Patch," a vast accumulation of plastic waste in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre.
The sources of plastic pollution are diverse, with land-based sources being the most significant contributor. Mismanaged waste from households, wastewater, and industries, such as agriculture and plastic manufacturing, can enter the ocean through littering, wind, overflowing garbage bins, and sewage overflows. Rivers are a significant pathway for plastic to reach the ocean, as evidenced by the work of Lebreton et al. in 2017.
The impact of plastic pollution extends to marine life, human health, and the planet. Images of marine animals entangled in plastic or ingesting plastic waste have sparked global concern. Additionally, the realisation that plastic pollution is not limited to the ocean's surface but also reaches the deep sea, sea ice, and the food web has heightened the urgency to address this issue.
While recycling has been proposed as a solution, it is not a perfect one, with most plastics still ending up in landfills or the environment. Activists have targeted single-use plastics, and several cities have implemented bag bans to curb plastic pollution.
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Frequently asked questions
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause harm. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light).
Pollution has been a problem since the appearance of our earliest ancestors. However, with the establishment of permanent settlements, pollution became a more serious problem and it has remained one ever since. In the 19th century, episodes of "smog" in cities led to many deaths, and by the middle of the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect the environment from pollution had developed among the general public.
Ancient human settlements are frequently recognized by their wastes—shell mounds and rubble heaps, for instance. Cities of ancient times were often fouled by human wastes and debris. Beginning around 1000 CE, the use of coal for fuel caused considerable air pollution. In the 16th century, the Spanish conquest of South America and their use of metallurgy techniques caused lead pollution in the Andes.
