The Start Of Pollution: A Historical Perspective

Pollution is not a new phenomenon. It has been a problem since the emergence of our earliest ancestors, with increasing human populations leading to more bacteria and diseases. The burning of wood in ancient homes, for example, has been identified as a source of pollution through the discovery of blackened lungs on mummified tissue from Egypt, Peru, and Great Britain. The Romans are also known to have polluted the air by releasing metallic pollutants into the atmosphere. The Industrial Revolution in the mid-19th century further exacerbated the issue, introducing new sources of air and water pollution. Today, pollution continues to be a significant concern, with motor vehicles being the leading cause of air pollution in the United States.

The Industrial Revolution

Pollution has been a problem since the earliest ancestors appeared. However, most recognize the Anthropocene as beginning with the Industrial Revolution (1780s-1830s). The Industrial Revolution, particularly the first Industrial Revolution, marked the beginning of large-scale fossil fuel use, especially coal. The introduction of steam engines, coal-powered factories, and mechanized production processes led to a substantial increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The amount of carbon dioxide released into the Earth's atmosphere steadily increased at the start of the Industrial Revolution and has been rising ever since.

The Second Industrial Revolution (late 19th to early 20th centuries) introduced electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine. This phase drove mass production and the growth of heavy industries across Europe and North America. Countries like the UK, Germany, and France rapidly industrialized, leading to exponential increases in energy consumption and resource extraction. Each phase of industrialization added to the cumulative environmental strain, causing significant increases in air pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions.

The environmental consequences of the Industrial Revolution were not fully understood until many years after it began. At the time, society was focused on rapid economic growth and technological advancements. The Industrial Revolution marked a trend of wastefulness and overconsumption that continues to affect the environment today. The mass migration of populations from the countryside to the fast-growing towns and cities where the factories were located led to overcrowding, which resulted in unhealthy living conditions and filth in the streets.

The impact of pollution on the health of urban populations was often devastating, particularly for working families housed close to industrial sources. Waterborne diseases like cholera and typhoid, as well as air pollution and occupational exposure to hazardous materials, took a heavy toll. The signs of environmental damage became more apparent as industrialization continued, even after the Industrial Revolution. Several environmental disasters occurred as a result of rapid urbanization and the pollution that industrialization brought.

Ancient metallurgy

Metallurgy is the process of working metal into tools and artefacts. The first evidence of human metallurgy dates from the 5th and 6th millennium BC and was found in archaeological sites in Serbia. Copper was the first metal to be discovered, around 4000 BC, and this allowed humans to extend the techniques of metallurgy. Copper smelting has been found at the Belovode site in Serbia, including a copper axe from 5500 BC belonging to the Vinca culture.

Other signs of human metallurgy are found from the third millennium BC in places like Palmela (Portugal), Cortes de Navarra (Spain), and Stonehenge (United Kingdom). Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found natively, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures. Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 BC were highly prized as "Daggers from Heaven".

The Bronze Age began around 3500 BC with the discovery that an alloy could be made by heating rocks to obtain copper and tin and combining these two metals. Bronze was the first truly artificial material and was used for tools, utensils, and ornaments. Bronze also made the sword, the first specialised tool for combat, possible.

The Iron Age began around 1200 BC when the Hittites discovered how to extract and work iron. Iron ore has a very high melting point, and it was only when kilns advanced enough to reach these temperatures that iron could be used for tools and weapons. The introduction of carbon to the mixture could lower the melting temperature, but carbon also contributed to the brittleness of the resultant products.

The development of metallurgy had a profound effect on the environment. Wherever iron was introduced, deforestation and an increase in agriculture followed. Mining operations leached acids and toxic minerals, including mercury and arsenic, into nearby water. The smelting of lead in 150 BC Rome produced clouds of toxic gas so extensive that a record of the air pollution is evident today in ice deposits in Greenland.

In South America, the ice record at Quelccaya shows evidence of pollution from Inca metallurgy around 1480 in the form of trace amounts of bismuth. The Spanish took over the Inca mines in the 16th century and began to pump clouds of lead dust over the Andes. Silver smelting became the most important industrial activity on the continent, and the Spanish introduced a new technique called amalgamation, which allowed them to process low-quality ores that contained much more lead than silver. This technique involved grinding the ore into powder, which easily became airborne, and this accounts for the sudden spike in lead concentrations in the ice core.

In China, core samples from Lake Erhai show evidence of lead, silver, zinc and cadmium pollution from the production of copper and silver starting in 1500 BC and continuing through the Mongol Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD).

In North America, the environmental impact of 8000-year-old copper mines has been studied off the shores of southern Ontario's Great Lakes.

Roman times

The history of pollution can be traced back to the Roman times, around 2000 years ago. The Roman Empire's extensive mining and smelting of heavy metals for almost half a millennium, from 350 BCE to 175 CE, released large amounts of toxic lead fumes into Europe's air, causing severe air pollution. Roman-era pollution in the North Atlantic region was a direct consequence of fluctuations in the intensity of smelting, which released lead aerosol particles that were carried great distances within the Northern Hemisphere.

The Romans' use of fire for heating and cooking, as well as their metallurgy and large-scale agriculture, also contributed to air pollution. The burning of wood and the keeping of livestock, such as cows, sheep, and goats, increased methane gas emissions. Methane, a greenhouse gas, was emitted in significant quantities, impacting the Earth's atmosphere.

Lead pollution was prevalent in Roman times, affecting the environment and human health. The Romans used lead for water pipes, household items, and even coffins. Lead was also released during the smelting of various metallic ores, including copper, gold, tin, zinc, and silver. Cores extracted from natural sites across Europe and the North Atlantic show a sudden and dramatic rise in lead pollution during the Roman era, with levels falling after the decline of the Roman Empire.

The ancient Romans were aware of the issues caused by pollution and attempted to address them through regulations and laws. They recognised the need for waste management in larger settlements and took measures to conserve natural resources, such as limiting the number of olive trees that could be cut down annually. While the Romans did not have the same ecological awareness as we do today, their efforts laid the foundation for environmental laws and sustainable practices.

The Middle Ages

The origins of pollution can be traced back to ancient times, with the first signs of pollution emerging even in the Middle Ages. During this period, a range of environmental issues arose, largely due to the increase in human activities and the lack of understanding of their environmental impact.

In addition to indoor air pollution, the Middle Ages also saw the emergence of water pollution. As cities grew, so did the amount of waste that was generated. Sewage and waste from tanneries, butcher shops, and other industries were often dumped directly into rivers and streams, contaminating water sources. This not only led to the spread of diseases but also had a detrimental impact on aquatic life and the overall ecological balance. The contamination of water sources was further exacerbated by the lack of proper sanitation systems in many cities, leading to the spread of waterborne diseases.

Another significant form of pollution during this era was land pollution. As agricultural practices intensified to meet the demands of growing populations, land degradation occurred due to overgrazing and deforestation. The clearing of forests for agricultural land, fuel, and construction materials led to soil erosion and reduced soil fertility. Additionally, the widespread use of horses and other animals for transportation and labor contributed to land pollution through the accumulation of animal waste in streets and public spaces.

Metalworking and the early emergence of industrialization also played a role in pollution during the Middle Ages. The smelting of metals, particularly lead and copper, released harmful pollutants into the air and soil. This was especially prevalent in areas with metalworking industries, where the local environment and the health of those working in these industries were impacted.

It is important to note that during the Middle Ages, there was a lack of understanding about the causes and consequences of pollution. People were largely unaware of the long-term environmental and health impacts of their actions, and the concept of environmental protection had not yet emerged.

Modern-day legislation

While pollution has existed since the earliest ancestors, modern-day legislation to control it is a relatively new concept. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century brought new sources of air and water pollution, and by the middle of the 20th century, countries worldwide felt its effects.

The Clean Air Act of 1970 was a landmark legislation in the United States, recognising the right to healthy air quality and giving the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to regulate air pollutants and polluting industries. This law has been amended and strengthened over time, with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 representing a major shift towards cost-effective approaches to reducing air pollution. The 1990 amendments established a national permits program, implemented the Montreal Protocol to phase out ozone-depleting chemicals, and addressed acid rain through a cap-and-trade program for emissions.

The Clean Water Act of 1972 was another significant piece of legislation, providing funding to improve sewage treatment plants and setting limits on discharges into water bodies. This legislation was prompted by major incidents of water pollution, such as the Cuyahoga River fire in 1969.

The Pollution Prevention Act is another critical piece of legislation, focusing on reducing pollution through cost-effective changes in production, operation, and raw materials use. This act establishes a national policy implemented by the EPA, emphasising source reduction, environmentally safe recycling, and treatment of pollution.

To further combat air pollution, the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first federal legislation addressing air quality. This allocated funding for research and laid the foundation for subsequent laws, such as the Clean Air Act.

These laws have had a significant impact on reducing pollution and protecting public health and the environment. They demonstrate a global recognition of the importance of environmental protection and the need for regulations to control pollution.

Frequently asked questions