Air Pollution's Early Days In Beijing

Beijing's air pollution can be attributed to a multitude of factors, including an economic boom, a surge in motorized vehicles, population growth, manufacturing output, and natural causes such as topography and seasonal weather. While the city has witnessed significant improvements in recent years, with a 40% decrease in harmful particulates between 2013 and 2020, it continues to battle air pollution. The history of air pollution in Beijing dates back to the 1990s, when the city experienced a period of rapid industrialization, marked by a rise in coal-burning factories and a surge in the number of cars on the roads, resulting in impenetrable smog.

Industrial emissions from heavy industries

Beijing, like many cities in China, has suffered from extensive air pollution. The causes of this are multifaceted and include an enormous economic boom, a surge in the number of motor vehicles, population growth, manufacturing output, and natural reasons, such as the city's topography and seasonal weather.

In 2013, the Chinese government began to address this issue by relocating heavy industries from Beijing to surrounding areas, primarily Hebei. This move aimed to decrease production capacity and transform equipment and production processes in Hebei and other provinces. The government also implemented stricter air pollution monitoring of ozone and PM2.5 levels, with state media acknowledging the role of environmental campaigners in bringing about this change.

Despite these efforts, challenges remain in effectively enforcing industrial emission control measures. China has established laws to curb industrial pollutant emissions, but poor implementation persists. Stringent and unannounced inspections are proposed as a means to identify and fine corporations emitting excessive pollutants, particularly those responsible for clandestine night-time emissions.

To address the root cause of industrial air pollution, China is encouraged to adopt cleaner energy sources, such as solar and wind power. While this transition entails substantial financial burdens, it is necessary to improve air quality and protect public health.

Population growth and increased vehicle ownership

Beijing's air pollution can be attributed to a variety of factors, two of which are population growth and increased vehicle ownership.

Population Growth

The population of Beijing has grown significantly in recent years, swelling from 11 million to 16 million in just 7 years, and doubling over the past century. This rapid population increase has resulted in a corresponding increase in pollution levels. With more people comes a greater demand for consumer goods, vehicles, and energy, which leads to increased burning of fossil fuels and subsequent smog formation.

Increased Vehicle Ownership

The surge in the number of motorized vehicles on Beijing's roads has had a significant impact on air pollution levels. The number of motor vehicles has doubled to 3.3 million, with nearly 1200 added each day. Vehicle emissions contribute to nearly 70% of the city's air pollution, with the four most dangerous pollutants being sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (e.g. PM10). Newly introduced vehicles often have lower emission standards, emitting more pollutants than older models.

To address the issue of vehicle emissions, Beijing has implemented measures such as establishing low-emission zones and restricting the use of high-emission vehicles, particularly during events like the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Large cities like Beijing have also imposed driving and purchase restrictions on private vehicles to alleviate urban air quality and traffic congestion.

Impact of Economic Growth

China's rapid economic growth, particularly in the past three decades, has been a key factor in the country's extensive air pollution. The increase in wealth has led to a surge in vehicle ownership, as more individuals can afford motor vehicles. Additionally, economic development has resulted in increased output from manufacturing and industrialization, contributing to air pollution.

Topography and Seasonal Weather

Beijing's topography, surrounded by mountains, traps pollution within the city limits. Seasonal weather also plays a role, as air quality worsens in spring and summer due to temperature, humidity, and wind patterns that influence the concentration of pollutants.

Ineffective environmental laws and fines

Beijing's air pollution crisis has been decades in the making, with the city's rapid economic growth, surge in motor vehicles, population growth, manufacturing output, and natural factors like topography and weather all contributing to the problem. While the Chinese government has invested significant sums to combat air pollution, the country's environmental laws and fines have been criticised as ineffective.

The Environment Protection Law, which remained unchanged for 25 years, was amended in 2014, with some of the new articles regarded as unprecedentedly strict. However, prior to these amendments, environmental laws were often ignored by leaders, and the fines for violating them were so minuscule that corporations would simply pay the penalty rather than change their practices. This dynamic highlights the need for more stringent and effectively enforced environmental regulations.

The basic system of air pollution control in China was established with the Law on the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric Pollution, issued in 1987. This law focused on local governments' responsibility for air pollution control, targeted point sources like industrial coal-burning units, and included measures such as emission concentration standards and pollution fees. However, the fines were capped at a maximum of 500,000, which may not have provided a strong enough incentive for compliance.

The 2008 Olympic Summer Games in Beijing served as a catalyst for new policies to address air pollution. Emergency measures were enacted, and the games raised awareness about the need for environmental reform. Many factories and manufacturing plants were temporarily shut down, and driving restrictions were imposed. City officials also converted coal furnaces in homes to natural gas and relocated factories to other provinces. These measures demonstrated that improving air quality required a combination of policy changes, enforcement, and infrastructure upgrades.

While Beijing has made notable improvements in air quality in recent years, the problem is far from solved. The city's PM2.5 concentrations still fail to meet national ambient air quality standards and exceed the levels recommended by the World Health Organization. As Mr. Liu Jian, UN Environment's Chief Scientist, noted, solving Beijing's air quality issues will be a long-term process, requiring continued reform and enforcement of environmental regulations.

Pollution from coal-burning factories

Beijing's air pollution can be attributed to a multitude of factors, one of the most significant being the emissions from coal-burning factories. China's economic reforms, which began in 1979, lifted millions out of poverty, resulting in an economic boom. This rapid economic growth, however, came at a cost to the environment. The industrial sector in China has expanded exponentially, with a dramatic increase in the number of factories, particularly coal-burning factories.

The burning of coal releases a multitude of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter (PM). These pollutants have severe impacts on both the environment and human health. In 2012, Zhong Nanshan, the president of the China Medical Association, warned that air pollution could become China's biggest health threat. This warning was underscored by measurements taken by the Beijing municipal government in January 2013, which showed that the highest recorded level of PM2.5 (particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers in size) was nearly 1,000 micrograms per cubic meter.

The industrial sector is a major contributor to China's CO2 emissions, accounting for approximately 48% of the total. The power sector, which includes coal-burning power plants, is also a significant contributor, responsible for 40% of CO2 emissions. These emissions have far-reaching consequences, not just for China but for the entire globe. Traces of smog from mainland China have been observed as far away as California, and sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides fall as acid rain on Seoul, South Korea, and even reach Los Angeles in the US.

To combat this issue, China has invested significant sums into reducing air pollution. In 2013, China's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution. As a result of these efforts, Beijing has seen improvements in air quality in recent years. In 2019, Beijing experienced the lowest PM2.5 levels on record, and in 2020, the city enjoyed good air quality for over 40 days during the autumn and winter months. Additionally, millions of homes and businesses are switching from coal to natural gas, contributing to the improvement in air quality.

Improvements: switching from coal to natural gas

Beijing's air pollution has been a concern for quite some time, with the city being known for its grey, smog-filled skies. The causes of Beijing's air pollution can be attributed to various factors, including an economic boom, a surge in motor vehicles, population growth, manufacturing output, and natural reasons such as topography and seasonal weather. The city's air pollution has severe health implications for its citizens, with hundreds of thousands dying from air pollution-related causes every year.

In recent years, Beijing has made significant strides in improving its air quality and reducing pollution. One of the key improvements has been the switch from coal to natural gas for energy production and home use. Coal is the dirtiest and most polluting energy source, and by transitioning to natural gas, Beijing has been able to lower emissions, reduce harmful health outcomes, and improve the quality of life for its residents. This transition has also allowed Beijing to reduce local coal production while maintaining energy access.

The Chinese government has played a role in this transition by investing substantial sums to combat air pollution. In 2013, China launched a pilot project to switch Beijing's power plants from coal to natural gas, and from 2013 to 2018, China opened five liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminals near Beijing, with a capacity of almost 40 bcm. As a result, Beijing shuttered over 2 gigawatts of local coal plant capacity and opened nearly 6 gigawatts of cleaner natural gas capacity.

The switch from coal to natural gas has had a positive impact on air quality in Beijing. Studies have shown that this transition has led to a reduction in air pollutants, including a 4.9% reduction in particulate matter and a 5.2% decrease in SO2. Additionally, Beijing's average annual Air Quality Index score has improved, indicating a decrease in pollution levels.

While the switch to natural gas has been effective in reducing local emissions, more work is needed to address global climatological impacts. Natural gas production still incurs carbon and methane emissions, and developed countries that produce natural gas must work to constrain global greenhouse gas emissions by limiting methane flaring and capturing carbon in underground storage. Additionally, China's victory over urban air pollution has come at a cost, as the government has simply transferred coal generation from major cities to less populated locations.

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