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Several international agreements and protocols have been established to address the issue of pollutants and improve air quality. These agreements are legally binding for countries that have formally ratified them. One notable example is the Kyoto Protocol, which differentiates between the responsibilities of different types of countries. The Aarhus Convention, signed in 1998, promotes access to information, public participation, and justice in environmental matters. Additionally, the Stockholm Convention, finalized in 2001, aims to reduce or eliminate the production and use of certain persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The United States has also signed a legally binding regional protocol under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), seeking to eliminate the production and reduce emissions of POPs. Furthermore, the Gothenburg Protocol assists countries like Canada in addressing transboundary air pollution and improving air quality. The Montreal Protocol, adopted under the Vienna Convention, focuses on substances that deplete the ozone layer. These protocols have led to significant reductions in emissions and have positively impacted public health and the environment.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Clean Air Act | Reduced air pollution, preventing serious health effects |
| Montreal Protocol | 197 countries committed to reducing HFCs, potent greenhouse gases |
| MATS | Reduced pollutants harmful to unborn babies, preventing premature deaths and asthma attacks |
| International agreements | Over 3,000 international environmental instruments identified by the IEA |
| Stockholm Convention | Legally binding agreement to reduce/eliminate production and use of certain pollutants |
| LRTAP POPs Protocol | Agreement to eliminate production and reduce emissions of POPs, including additional chemicals |
| Basel Convention | Reduce cross-border movement of hazardous waste and prevent illegal trafficking |
| Gothenburg Protocol | Reduce transboundary air pollution, addressing acidification and ground-level ozone |
| Kyoto Protocol | Differentiates between countries' responsibilities |
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What You'll Learn
The Gothenburg Protocol
In May 2012, the parties to the Gothenburg Protocol agreed on a substantial number of revisions, including the inclusion of commitments to further reduce emissions until 2020. These amendments are not yet binding, as they still need to be ratified by the parties. The proposed amendment sets out new national emission reduction commitments for 2020 onwards, covering four air pollutants: sulphur (mainly sulphur dioxide), nitrogen oxides, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds (excluding methane) and particulate matter. The protocol was modified to include two new annexes, aiming to strengthen efforts to meet long-term objectives for the protection of human health and the environment.
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The Montreal Protocol
The protocol was finalized and adopted in 1987 and is considered a model of cooperation and a monumental achievement. It is the result of international consensus, scientific study, negotiations among representatives of various sectors, and diplomacy. The ozone treaty has been ratified by 198 parties, including 197 states and the European Union, making it the first universally ratified treaty in United Nations history.
The protocol has proven to be innovative and successful, spurring global investment in alternative technologies and placing the ozone layer on a path to recovery. With full implementation, the protocol is estimated to prevent millions of cases of skin cancer, skin cancer deaths, and cataracts worldwide.
In 2016, an amendment to the Montreal Protocol, known as the Kigali Amendment, was adopted to phase down the production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) worldwide. HFCs are widely used alternatives to ODS and are powerful greenhouse gases. The amendment commits countries to significantly reducing their production and consumption over the next 30 years.
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The Kyoto Protocol
The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol lasted from 2008 to 2012. During this period, 36 developed countries participated, and all complied with the protocol. However, global emissions still increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010, highlighting the need for further action. The greatest emission reductions were observed in the former Eastern Bloc countries, as the dissolution of the Soviet Union significantly reduced their emissions.
A second commitment period was agreed upon in 2012, extending the agreement to 2020. This period, known as the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol, included 37 countries with binding targets. However, some countries, such as Canada and the United States, did not participate in the second commitment period. Despite these challenges, the Kyoto Protocol laid the foundation for subsequent agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, and remains a significant step in the global effort to combat climate change.
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The Stockholm Convention
The treaty was signed on May 22, 2001, in Stockholm, and came into force on May 17, 2004, with ratification by an initial 128 parties and 151 signatories. The United States signed the convention in 2001 but has not ratified it due to a lack of authority to implement all its provisions. Notable non-ratifying states include the United States, Israel, and Malaysia.
The key elements of the convention include the requirement that developed countries take measures to eliminate the production and use of intentionally produced POPs, eliminate unintentionally produced POPs where feasible, and manage and dispose of POPs wastes in an environmentally sound manner. For intentionally produced POPs, parties are required to prohibit or restrict their production, use, and trade, with certain exemptions like the continued use of DDT for malaria control. For unintentionally produced POPs, countries must develop national action plans and apply "Best Available Techniques" to control their release.
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The Clean Air Act
The Act also includes the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants program, targeting emissions of particular hazardous pollutants from specific sources. Section 112 of the Clean Air Act specifically addresses these emissions, requiring the EPA to establish emission standards, often referred to as "maximum achievable control technology" (MACT) standards, for "major sources."
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Frequently asked questions
The Gothenburg Protocol is an agreement to reduce transboundary air pollution. It was established to address pollutants that cause acidification and ground-level ozone, and it sets limits on air pollutants including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, ammonia, and volatile organic compounds.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) is an institutional framework that has brought together science and policy to mitigate the harmful effects of transboundary air pollution.
The Stockholm Convention is a legally binding international agreement, finalized in 2001, in which governments agreed to act to reduce or eliminate the production, use, or release of certain persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
The Clean Air Act is a set of programs that have lowered levels of common pollutants such as particles, ozone, lead, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide, as well as numerous toxic pollutants.
