China's Pollution Contribution: How Much Is Too Much?

China's rapid industrialization and urbanization have resulted in severe environmental degradation, with the country now being the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and facing serious air, water, and soil pollution issues. The immense urban growth of Chinese cities has substantially increased the need for consumer goods, vehicles, and energy, leading to increased burning of fossil fuels and subsequent smog. This has resulted in respiratory and cardiovascular issues for citizens, with air pollution alone causing hundreds of thousands of premature deaths annually. China's energy consumption relies heavily on coal, which has severe environmental impacts, and its plastic production and electronic waste also contribute significantly to global pollution.

China's air pollution

China's industrialization has brought about significant economic growth, lifting millions out of poverty. However, this progress has come at a cost. The country's energy consumption has been heavily reliant on coal, a cheap but highly polluting source of energy. In 1990, coal accounted for 76.2% of China's energy consumption, and while this percentage has decreased over time, it still stood at 57.7% in 2019. As a result, China has become the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, with its emissions more than tripling over the past three decades. In 2019, China's emissions accounted for 27% of the world's total, exceeding those of all developed nations combined.

The consequences of China's air pollution are dire. According to the Chinese Ministry of Health, industrial pollution has made cancer the leading cause of death in the country. A 2007 World Bank report estimated that outdoor air pollution alone causes 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths in China annually. Additionally, 500 million people in China lack access to safe and clean drinking water. The immense population growth has also resulted in increased soil pollution, with contaminated water being used for irrigation, threatening food safety and sustainable agriculture.

Recognizing the severity of the problem, China announced a "war against pollution" in 2014. Since then, the country has made remarkable progress in reducing its fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5). Between 2013 and 2022, pollution levels decreased by 41%, resulting in a potential increase in life expectancy for Chinese citizens. China has also implemented a national carbon trading scheme, creating a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits, aiming to balance economic growth with environmental protection.

Despite these efforts, challenges remain. China's air pollution levels still significantly exceed the World Health Organization's (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m³. Additionally, the country's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), aimed at enhancing trade routes, has been criticized for lacking clear environmental guidelines and contributing to environmental degradation in host countries. Nevertheless, China has pledged to reach net-zero emissions by 2060, demonstrating its commitment to addressing air pollution and climate change.

Water pollution

China's water pollution crisis has far-reaching consequences, with approximately 700 million people consuming drinking water that contains unsafe levels of animal and human waste. This issue is more prevalent in rural areas, where contamination levels can exceed permissible limits by up to 86%. Inadequate irrigation methods in agriculture, the use of agricultural chemicals, and the discharge of untreated waste from factories further compound the problem.

The impact of water pollution on human health in China is significant. It has been linked to high rates of liver, stomach, and esophageal cancer. In addition, waterborne pollution is estimated to cause thousands of deaths each year in the country. The situation is particularly dire in certain regions, such as the Yellow River, where a third of fish species have become extinct due to pollution, and the Yangtze River, which turned an alarming shade of red in 2012 due to industrial toxins.

Despite efforts by China's Ministry of Environment to address water pollution, the problem persists due to non-compliance by local governments and insufficient resources for monitoring and enforcement. Greenpeace has played a pivotal role in bringing attention to the issue, with campaigns like Detox challenging multinational companies to work with their suppliers to eliminate hazardous chemicals from water sources. However, China's water pollution crisis continues, with access to clean drinking water remaining a critical issue for the country's population.

China is also the largest polluter of the Pacific Ocean, with agricultural runoff, industrial waste, chemical fertilizers, and raw sewage being major contributors. This pollution has severe ecological consequences, creating offshore dead zones devoid of marine life. China's water pollution has even spread internationally, with acid rain falling on neighbouring countries like South Korea and Japan.

Soil pollution

China's rapid industrialization and economic growth have come at a cost to the environment, with various forms of pollution on land, in the air, and in water bodies. Soil pollution, in particular, has emerged as a pressing issue with far-reaching consequences.

China's first national soil survey, conducted between 1959 and 1961, aimed to quantify and classify its arable land. A second, more comprehensive survey was carried out between 1975 and 1994, providing a detailed understanding of soil types, quantities, distribution, and conditions. However, the last national soil survey was conducted over four decades ago, and China's land usage patterns have changed drastically since then.

In 2022, China initiated its third national soil survey, recognizing the urgent need to address soil pollution. This survey will document levels of acidification and heavy metal pollution, among other critical indicators. Soil acidification, caused by acid rain and excessive fertilizer use, has already impacted the fertility of arable land and the availability of food produced. China, with only 8% of the world's arable land, consumes 33% of the globally produced fertilizer, leading to dense, hardpan soil.

Intensive agriculture, exposure to wind and rain, and industrial activities have further exacerbated soil erosion and depletion, reducing the concentration of organic matter in the soil. The consequences of soil pollution extend beyond environmental degradation, posing a direct threat to food security and public health. Official estimates suggest that China produces 12 million tons of heavy-metal-contaminated grain annually, resulting in economic losses exceeding $3.2 billion. Moreover, studies have linked soil pollution to increased cancer rates, with one report attributing up to 760,000 premature deaths in China to air and water pollution.

To combat soil pollution, China's capital has implemented new regulations to control pesticide and chemical fertilizer usage and enhance monitoring of industrial plants. These initiatives, aligned with a national law adopted in 2019, demonstrate a growing awareness of the severity of soil pollution and a commitment to safeguarding soil health, food security, and environmental sustainability.

Plastic waste

China's plastic waste pollution has severe environmental repercussions, affecting the ocean, atmosphere, and soil. The Yangtze River, the longest river in Asia, has been identified as one of the biggest sources of marine plastic pollution. With China's growing population and rapid industrial development, the plastic pollution situation is becoming increasingly urgent, raising concerns about irreversible environmental damage.

To address this issue, China has implemented several policies and regulations in recent years. In 2017, China announced a ban on importing most plastic waste, which has had a positive impact on global environmental sustainability. China has also transitioned from a mixed-waste collection system to a source-segregation collection system, aiming to improve the classification of plastic waste sources. Additionally, China has introduced economic policy instruments, such as economic incentives, and published policies relevant to the regulation of plastic pollution control and prevention.

However, China's efforts to reduce plastic waste have had limited success so far. On average, only about 17% of the plastic used in China is recycled. The focus of China's plastic policies has been on back-end policy, with less attention given to the upstream part of the plastic lifecycle, including the prodigious production of plastics. While China tackles plastic pollution domestically, its actions have had repercussions globally, as other countries struggle to manage the waste that China previously imported.

To effectively combat plastic waste pollution, China needs to develop comprehensive plastic management policies that consider the specific needs of different regions. This includes achieving a balance between economic development and reducing plastic waste emissions, with a stronger emphasis on plastic cleanup efforts and reducing plastic production and consumption. By addressing these challenges, China can play a crucial role in tackling the global plastic pollution crisis.

Greenhouse gas emissions

China's rapid industrialization and economic growth have resulted in intense levels of air pollution, presenting serious social, economic, and political problems. China emitted 27% of the world's greenhouse gases in 2019, according to the Rhodium Group, making it the largest emitter of greenhouse gases worldwide. This percentage increased to over 31% in 2022, demonstrating China's significant contribution to global carbon dioxide emissions.

China's immense population growth, urbanization, and industrialization have led to a substantial increase in the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, which has been the main source of energy consumption in the country. In 1990, 76.2% of China's energy came from coal, and while this percentage has decreased over time, coal still accounted for 57.7% of energy consumption in 2019. The high levels of air pollution caused by coal burning have severe health impacts on Chinese citizens. According to China's Ministry of Health, industrial pollution has made cancer the leading cause of death in the country, with hundreds of thousands of premature deaths attributed to air and water pollution each year.

The effects of air pollution are not limited to China but have spread internationally. Cities like Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo experience the effects of pollution from China in the form of acid rain. Additionally, China's densely populated and economically critical low-lying coastal cities are threatened by the impacts of climate change, including frequent coastal flooding, storm surges, coastal erosion, and saltwater intrusion. Recognizing the urgency of the situation, China has pledged to reach net-zero emissions by 2060, with a peak no later than 2030.

To achieve this goal, China needs to make significant investments in green infrastructure and technology, particularly in the power and transport sectors. The World Bank Group's Country Climate and Development Report (CCDR) provides recommendations for a just transition to a low-carbon economy, including increasing solar and wind power generation capacity and enhancing the integration of renewable energy sources. While China has made progress in reducing pollution, with levels down by 41% in 2022 compared to 2013, sustained efforts and policy reforms are necessary to address the challenges posed by greenhouse gas emissions.

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