Kiera Jefferson
Long-range air pollution transport refers to the movement of harmful substances through air and water mediums over great distances, often affecting areas far from the original source of the pollutants. This process can have significant impacts on the environment and human health, contributing to issues such as ozone depletion and air quality degradation. The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) aims to address this issue by reducing transboundary air pollution and improving the understanding of air pollution science. It has led to a notable decline in air pollution emissions, particularly in the case of sulfur, and has helped to decouple economic growth from air pollution trends.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The movement of substances over great distances in the environment, through air and water mediums |
| Distance | Greater than 100 kilometres |
| Examples | Chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, lead, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, sulfur dioxide |
| Impact | Ozone holes, air quality issues, climate change, acidification of lakes |
| Treaties and Conventions | LRTAP (Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution), Gothenburg Protocol, Protocol on Heavy Metals |
| Regions Affected | North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Middle East |
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What You'll Learn
Transboundary air pollution
The United States, for example, experiences transboundary air pollution from its neighbouring countries, Mexico and Canada. Additionally, North America exchanges transboundary pollutants with other continents and sources in the global commons, such as international shipping and aviation. To address these issues, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been working collaboratively with its counterparts in Mexico and Canada through various bilateral and multilateral forums.
On a global scale, the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) was the first multilateral agreement to address this issue. It created a regional framework applicable to Europe, North America, Russia, and former East Bloc countries for reducing transboundary air pollution and improving the understanding of air pollution science. LRTAP has contributed to a significant decline in air pollution emissions, particularly for sulfur, and has helped to decouple economic growth from air pollution trends. The convention now has 51 parties and eight protocols, with most protocols addressing specific pollutants.
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Urban pollution
Long-range transport (LRT) refers to the movement of substances, including pollutants, over distances greater than 100 kilometres through air and water mediums. LRT and transboundary pollution are significant issues, particularly in Asia, where pollutants from the North Atlantic Ocean, the Middle East, and Africa are transported to South Asia, and Chinese emissions affect Japanese and Korean air quality. Urban areas, with their high population densities, are both significant sources and receptors of LRT pollutants.
For example, in northern China, including cities like Beijing, Chengdu, and Shanghai, and Nanjing, urban pollution is a critical issue. Dust storms over Asian deserts, as well as local anthropogenic sources, emit large amounts of PM, leading to poor air quality. Long-range transport of pollutants from desert areas in Northwestern China and Mongolia can significantly impact the air quality in Taiwanese cities like Taipei, with Asian dust transport contributing up to 87% of PM10 levels during intense dust events.
Additionally, the formation of secondary pollutants during long-range transport further exacerbates the problem. In northern China, episodes of long-range dust transport have resulted in increased concentrations of ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, SO42−, NO3−, and NH4+, negatively impacting water-soluble gases in the air. These pollutants can have harmful effects on human health, similar to the criteria pollutants outlined in the Clean Air Act, which include particulate matter, lead, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds.
To address the issue of LRT urban pollution, international collaboration and the implementation of treaties, such as the European LRTAP, are necessary. Additionally, the development of sensitive instrumentation, such as the Tekran™ device, enables the measurement of pollutants like mercury, allowing for a better understanding and management of urban pollution and its long-range transport.
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Stratosphere-to-troposphere transport
Long-range transport (LRT) of air pollutants refers to the movement of substances over great distances, exceeding 100 kilometres, through air and water mediums. LRT and transboundary pollution are pressing issues, particularly in Asia. For example, Chinese emissions have impacted the air quality of Japan and Korea.
The stratosphere and troposphere are two adjoining atmospheric regions with distinct characteristics. The stratosphere, home to the protective ozone layer, is located above the troposphere, which contains the majority of the Earth's water vapour and weather systems. The tropopause acts as a barrier to the upward transport of air and pollutants from the troposphere. However, stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) occurs, transporting air and atmospheric constituents across the tropopause.
The vertical transport of air and pollutants through the troposphere can occur rapidly, within hours to days. In contrast, the stratosphere's stability leads to slower mixing, with vertical transport taking months to years and requiring radiative heating or cooling. The dynamics of the two regions are interconnected yet complex, with the stratosphere warming due to ozone's absorption of solar radiation, particularly over the tropics. This warming pattern decreases towards the polar regions and is absent during the polar winter.
Human activities, such as aviation, have been implicated in the pollution of the stratosphere, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere. Measurements during the Atmospheric Tomography Mission (ATom) revealed a significant abundance of stratospheric aerosols in the Northern Hemisphere, especially the smallest aerosols, which were 4 to 100 times more prevalent than in the Southern Hemisphere. One common source of these particles is sulfur dioxide, a byproduct of burning fuels containing sulfur.
Tropospheric, or ground-level, ozone is a harmful air pollutant and a primary ingredient in "smog". It is not directly emitted into the air but is formed by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These reactions occur when pollutants from vehicles, power plants, industrial boilers, and other sources interact in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone can be transported long distances by wind, affecting both urban and rural areas.
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Intercontinental transport
The four major types of pollution that are often transported over intercontinental distances include ozone, ozone precursors, airborne particles, and heavy metals such as mercury. These pollutants can have far-reaching consequences, affecting regions beyond their original sources. For instance, North American emissions have a significant impact on European ozone levels, while European emissions influence ozone levels in South and East Asia. Similarly, East Asian emissions have a comparable impact on North American ozone levels.
The issue of intercontinental transport has prompted the formation of international agreements and task forces to address the problem. The Task Force on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution, established in 2004 by the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention), has studied ground-level ozone, fine particles (PM), mercury (Hg), and persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Their findings highlight the need for coordinated international efforts to mitigate the environmental and public health impacts of these pollutants.
To address the challenges posed by intercontinental transport, international cooperation is crucial. Model experiments have been conducted to understand the source-receptor relationships for four key regions: North America, Europe, South Asia, and East Asia. These regions contribute significantly to anthropogenic emissions in the Northern Hemisphere. Additionally, international forums such as the Stockholm Convention on POPs and the UNEP's mercury program aim to reduce the release of hazardous substances into the environment.
The complex nature of intercontinental transport requires a comprehensive approach to tackle it effectively. By combining regional cooperative programmes with global initiatives, we can develop a shared understanding of air pollution issues and implement tailored policies and programmes to protect public health and the environment from the detrimental effects of long-range pollution transport.
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Local vs regional pollution
Long-range transport (LRT) of air pollutants refers to the movement of substances over large distances, through air and water mediums. This movement can be classified as advective or dispersive. LRT has been observed to occur over distances greater than 100 kilometres.
LRT has been a significant issue in Asia, with pollutants from the North Atlantic Ocean, the Middle East, and Africa reaching South Asia, and Chinese emissions affecting air quality in Japan and Korea. Transboundary pollution, a type of LRT, has been witnessed in the Delhi region of India, with pollution drifting in from neighbouring states.
Local pollution refers to the immediate impact of pollutants emitted from sources such as industrial plants, vehicles, and coal-burning facilities. These sources can cause secondary pollutants, which have serious effects on air quality, public health, and ecosystems, extending beyond the local community.
Regional pollution, on the other hand, encompasses the broader circulation of pollutants across larger areas. This includes the transport of pollutants from one region or state to another, impacting air quality in multiple locations. For example, Houston, Texas, experiences air pollution from industrial activity, which then affects the entire southeastern portion of the state.
It is important to note that the distinction between local and regional pollution is not always clear-cut, as pollutants can spread and disperse over time, impacting areas beyond their immediate vicinity. Additionally, the effects of pollution are not limited to the atmosphere but can also impact ecosystems, agriculture, and human well-being.
Furthermore, research has revealed racial and ethnic disparities in exposure to air pollution, with people of colour facing a higher average burden. These disparities are driven by regional variability and influenced by demographic composition. Thus, it is crucial to address pollution at both the local and regional levels to mitigate its health and environmental impacts on diverse communities.
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Frequently asked questions
Long-range air pollution transport refers to the movement of substances over great distances through air and water mediums.
Natural and human-induced emissions are the main causes of long-range air pollution transport. Urban areas are significant sources of pollutants that can be transported over long distances.
Long-range air pollution transport can have a significant impact on baseline air quality in receptor areas. It can also cause ozone holes and increase the risk of respiratory issues such as bronchitis.
International agreements such as the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) aim to reduce transboundary air pollution. Amendments to protocols under LRTAP, such as the Gothenburg Protocol, also help to further reduce emissions of harmful air pollutants.
