Understanding Impairment: Non-Pollution Causes And Effects

Air pollution is a major global issue, causing millions of deaths and a significant increase in diseases and health issues in both children and adults. The impact of air pollution on human health is well-documented, with links to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. However, the specific causes of impairment are not always clear and can be complex. While certain pollutants are known to have detrimental effects on health, such as particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), and ground-level ozone (O3), the presence of other contaminants does not always indicate impairment. This complexity is further highlighted by the fact that the levels of exposure considered 'safe' can vary by pollutant, and for some pollutants, there are no thresholds below which adverse effects do not occur.

Air pollution is the single largest environmental health risk in Europe

Air pollution is defined as the presence of one or more contaminants in the atmosphere, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour, smoke or vapour, in quantities and durations that can be harmful to human health. It is caused by both anthropogenic activities, such as agricultural, industrial, and transportation processes, as well as natural sources.

Both short-term and long-term exposure to air pollution can lead to a wide range of diseases. Short-term exposure to high levels of particulate matter can lead to reduced lung function, respiratory infections, and aggravated asthma. On the other hand, long-term or chronic exposure to fine particulate matter increases the risk of diseases with a longer onset, such as stroke, ischaemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and pneumonia. Additionally, there is suggestive evidence linking air pollution exposure to increased risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes, other cancers, diabetes, cognitive impairment, and neurological diseases. Maternal exposure to air pollution is associated with low birth weight, pre-term birth, and small for gestational age births.

The main pathway of exposure to air pollution is through the respiratory tract. Pollutants like particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide are inhaled, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. These pollutants can penetrate deep into the lungs, enter the bloodstream, and travel to organs, causing systemic damage to tissues and cells. The children, elderly, and pregnant women are more susceptible to air pollution-related diseases, and genetics, comorbidities, nutrition, and sociodemographic factors also impact an individual's susceptibility.

To address the issue of air pollution in Europe, legislation has been put in place to reduce emissions from harmful air pollutants. The National Emission Reduction Commitments Directive (NECD) sets national emission reduction commitments for Member States and the EU for key air pollutants: nitrogen oxides, non-methane volatile organic compounds, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, and fine particulate matter. The European Green Deal and the Zero Pollution Action Plan have also set targets to reduce air pollution and its health impacts by specific deadlines.

Morbidity and mortality are increased by air pollution

Air pollution is a major global health concern, with about 99% of the world's population breathing polluted air. Lower- and middle-income countries are the most affected by this environmental risk. Morbidity and mortality are indeed increased by air pollution, with an estimated 7 million premature deaths occurring annually due to air pollution.

Particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are among the most concerning air pollutants for public health. These pollutants can cause systemic damage to tissues and cells, leading to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. Fine particulate matter, in particular, can penetrate deep into the lungs, enter the bloodstream, and travel to organs, causing damage. The main pathway of exposure to air pollution is through the respiratory tract, leading to inflammation, oxidative stress, immunosuppression, and mutagenicity in cells throughout the body, impacting the lungs, heart, and brain, among other organs.

Studies have also found a link between air pollution and adverse pregnancy outcomes, with maternal exposure associated with low birth weight, pre-term birth, and small for gestational age births. Additionally, air pollution may affect diabetes and neurological development in children. The children, elderly, and pregnant women are more susceptible to air pollution-related diseases, with genetics, comorbidities, nutrition, and sociodemographic factors also influencing susceptibility.

Furthermore, air pollution has been identified as a risk factor for COVID-19 morbidity and mortality. Higher levels of air pollutants, such as particulate matter, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide, have been associated with increased SARS-CoV-2 infection rates, hospital admissions, and mortality due to COVID-19. Air pollutants induce the expression of proteins required for viral entry into host cells and cause impairment in the host defence system, making individuals more susceptible to infection.

Wood smoke, just like cigarette smoke, has been identified as a cause of premature death. Well-preserved mummies from 5,000 years ago show signs of ravaged lungs at early ages, indicating that wood smoke has long been a cause of mortality.

Soil pollution can cause changes in biodiversity

Soil pollution can refer to the presence of contaminants and toxic compounds such as trace elements, natural radioactivity, ultraviolet light, microbial toxins, and defensive compounds from plants and microorganisms in the soil. These contaminants can have adverse effects on the soil's living organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants, leading to changes in biodiversity.

Soil is a vital component of terrestrial ecosystems, and its health and biodiversity are essential for the proper functioning of these ecosystems. Soil biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms present in the soil, including microorganisms, insects, invertebrates, and larger fauna. It plays a crucial role in supporting life on Earth by providing essential functions such as biomass generation, biogeochemical cycling, and regulating water movement, climate, and pollution.

When soil pollution occurs, it can lead to a decline in soil biodiversity. This decline is characterized by a reduction in both the number and variety of life forms present in the soil. Contaminants in the soil can directly harm or kill sensitive organisms, leading to a decrease in their population. Additionally, pollutants can alter the physiological and feeding behaviours of organisms, impacting their ability to survive and reproduce.

The effects of soil pollution on biodiversity are evident at both the organism and community levels. At the organism level, the toxicity of contaminants can lead to a reduction in the number of organisms. Certain contaminants, such as heavy metals and pesticides, have been found to be particularly harmful, causing DNA damage, changes in enzymatic activity, and bacterial imbalances. For example, plants growing in soils polluted with heavy metals may exhibit reduced growth, performance, and yield.

At the community level, soil pollution can favour the survival of tolerant or resistant organisms over sensitive ones. This can lead to shifts in species distribution and changes in the overall structure of the ecosystem. Additionally, soil contaminants can enter the food chain, causing disease and mortality in soil-dwelling, terrestrial, and aquatic organisms, further contributing to biodiversity loss.

The impact of soil pollution on biodiversity can also be observed through changes in soil properties and functions. Soil microorganisms may activate defence mechanisms in response to pollutants, such as increasing the production of certain enzymes. While this defensive strategy can help protect the microorganisms, it may also impact their growth and reproduction, leading to a decline in the overall microbial community.

Water quality impairment is caused by a variety of contaminants

One of the primary sources of water quality impairment is sewage and wastewater. Sewage typically contains a variety of chemical contaminants disposed of by consumers and industries. While wastewater treatment can remove some of these contaminants, it is not always effective, and treated wastewater can still contain harmful substances. For example, conventional sewage treatment can remove more than 90% of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts, but the treated water can still contain measurable concentrations of these contaminants.

Pathogenic bacteria and other water-borne pathogens are another significant cause of water quality impairment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that pathogens impair more than 480,000 km of rivers and shorelines and 2 million hectares of lakes in the United States alone. These pathogens can come from agricultural lands, sewage systems, and other sources, and they pose a significant risk to human health. Diseases associated with water-borne pathogens include cholera, diarrhoea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio.

Other contaminants that can impair water quality include metals, low dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and pH levels. These contaminants can have a range of impacts on aquatic life, including fish and other organisms. For example, low dissolved oxygen can lead to fish kills, while high nutrient levels can cause harmful algal blooms, which can be toxic to aquatic life and disrupt the ecosystem.

In addition to the direct health risks, water quality impairment can also have economic impacts. For example, impaired water sources can affect fishing, swimming, and other recreational activities, which can hurt local economies that depend on these activities. Water quality impairment can also increase the cost of water treatment and impact agriculture and industry that rely on water.

Overall, water quality impairment is a complex issue that requires a multidisciplinary approach to address. Effective monitoring, treatment, and management of water resources are essential to ensure safe and sustainable water supplies for human and environmental health.

Pollutants absorbed by the skin can cause skin issues

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines air pollution as the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any chemical, physical, or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics of the atmosphere. The main sources of air pollution can be natural, such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and radioactive materials, or human-made, such as industrial emissions, vehicular emissions, and fossil fuel burning.

Air pollution is a significant risk factor for all-cause mortality and specific diseases, including respiratory and cardiovascular issues, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer. The specific disease outcomes most strongly linked with exposure to air pollution include stroke, ischaemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and pneumonia.

The skin, our body's largest organ, is not exempt from the detrimental effects of air pollution. Pollutants can be absorbed directly through the skin, leading to various skin issues. For instance, exposure to particulate matter and cigarette smoke can act as skin-aging agents, causing spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. The depletion of the ozone layer further exacerbates this issue by allowing more ultraviolet rays to reach the Earth's surface, contributing to an increased incidence of skin cancers and a decrease in their age of onset.

Additionally, ultraviolet radiation, in combination with common environmental pollutants, can cause oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial impairment in skin cells. This can lead to photoaging, which is characterized by the deterioration of the structure and function of skin cells, resulting in spots and wrinkles.

Other skin disorders influenced by air pollution include acne, hyperpigmentation, atopic dermatitis, and psoriasis. The impact of pollutants on the skin has led to the development of anti-pollution skincare and hair care products, as well as basic pollution protective measures such as the use of protective clothing and barrier creams.

While this response primarily focuses on the impact of air pollution on the skin, it is worth noting that soil pollution can also have significant ecosystem impairments. Changes in soil properties can reduce protection mechanisms, releasing contaminants into other environmental compartments, such as water, air, and organisms.

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