Meghan Hodges
Mongolia's air pollution problem is a severe version of a global issue. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has become infamous for being one of the most polluted cities in the world. The primary source of air pollution in the country is burning raw coal, which accounts for 80% of air pollution from November to April. Other factors contributing to Mongolia's poor air quality include desertification, deforestation, human migration, and the use of fossil fuels such as diesel for transportation. The country's pollution issues are closely linked to climate change, with coal consumption, emissions from industry, agriculture, and road transport being significant sources of both greenhouse gases and air pollutants. The Mongolian government has implemented measures such as banning raw coal and introducing refined coal briquettes to improve air quality, but the city's air pollution remains a challenging issue.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Population | 3 million |
| Population of Ulaanbaatar | 1.5 million |
| Annual mean concentration of PM2.5 in Ulaanbaatar | 6-10 times higher than the level considered safe by WHO |
| Daily average of PM2.5 pollution levels in Ulaanbaatar | 687 micrograms per cubic meter |
| Air pollution-related deaths in Mongolia | 4000 per year |
| Air pollution-related deaths worldwide | 7 million per year |
| Air pollution-related child deaths in Mongolia | 50% of pneumonia cases |
| Air pollution-related deaths per 100,000 people in Mongolia | 132 |
| Air pollution-related deaths per 100,000 people worldwide | 92 |
| Percentage of air pollution in Ulaanbaatar caused by motor vehicle traffic | 10% |
| Main source of air pollution in Mongolia | Coal-burning stoves |
| Percentage of air pollution in Mongolia caused by coal-burning stoves | 80% |
| Other sources of air pollution in Mongolia | Vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, agricultural emissions, desertification, deforestation, human migration |
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What You'll Learn
Coal-burning stoves
Mongolia's air pollution has many causes, from desertification and deforestation to human migration. However, the most significant source of air pollution in the country comes from coal-burning stoves in Ulaanbaatar's "ger districts" during the cold season. Ger districts are informal settlements that have sprung up around the city due to the migration of vulnerable people to the capital. Eighty per cent of Ulaanbaatar's air pollution comes from these ger districts.
In addition to the health risks, coal-burning stoves can also contribute to unpleasant odours in the surrounding area. The use of open fireplaces and wood-burning stoves can be particularly problematic, as they are very energy-inefficient and produce high levels of uncontrolled emissions. Even closed wood-burning stoves can negatively impact the health of the user and their neighbours if used regularly. It is recommended that residents only use their fireplaces or wood stoves occasionally and always follow the manufacturer's guidelines, including burning only suitable fuels. Burning unsuitable fuels, such as paper, cardboard, or treated wood, can pose a health hazard to the entire neighbourhood.
To address the air pollution caused by coal-burning stoves, the Mongolian government implemented a ban on raw coal in 2019 and introduced subsidised "refined coal briquettes." However, lower-income families have struggled to afford these cleaner alternatives, especially during the economic downturn caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, they have resorted to burning cheap, dirty fuels, including trash, to keep themselves warm. While the raw coal ban was initially praised as a successful measure to combat air pollution, Ulaanbaatar's air quality ranked as the worst in the world again in October 2020.
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Vehicular emissions
The impact of vehicular emissions on air quality is further compounded by other factors, such as the burning of organic matter and fossil fuels, particularly coal. Coal-burning stoves and power plants are prevalent in Ulaanbaatar, and their smoke contributes significantly to the city's air pollution. The rapid urbanization and unplanned settlements in Ulaanbaatar have also exacerbated the pollution problem, with half of the population residing in traditional felt dwellings called "gers" that often rely on coal for heating and cooking.
To address vehicular emissions and improve air quality, the World Health Organization (WHO) has provided several recommendations. These include implementing measures to alleviate traffic congestion and reduce the reliance on motorized transport. Creating green areas, relocating offices and commercial spaces to more pedestrian- and cyclist-friendly locations, and integrating environmental and health considerations into urban planning are all suggested strategies.
In addition to the immediate health risks, air pollution in Mongolia has severe long-term consequences, particularly for children. The incidence of respiratory diseases, including pneumonia, has increased alarmingly in Ulaanbaatar, with a 2.7-fold rise in respiratory infections per 10,000 population over the last decade. Moreover, fetal deaths have shown a 3.5-fold increase between winter and summer, emphasizing the urgent need to address air pollution and its detrimental effects on public health.
While Mongolia has made efforts to mitigate air pollution, such as the government-imposed ban on raw coal consumption in specific districts, the country continues to face challenges. The interplay of various factors, including desertification, deforestation, human migration, and the historical presence of mining, has resulted in a complex situation that requires comprehensive solutions.
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Desertification and deforestation
Mongolia is one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change, with about 76.9% of its land affected by desertification and land degradation. The country has a long history of mining, and the side effects of mass mining can lead to heightened levels of fine particulate matter in the air. While this is not the most prominent cause of pollution, it still contributes to the country's disastrous levels of PM2.5.
Desertification in Mongolia is largely brought on by human activities, with approximately 87% of cases caused by human factors. These factors include the overgrazing of fertile lands, erosion of farmland soils, and irresponsible land use. For instance, between 1996 and 2009, up to a third of rivers dried out or were impacted by drought conditions. Furthermore, the country has experienced a temperature rise of 2.5°C over the past 80 years, exacerbating environmental degradation.
Deforestation is also a significant issue in Mongolia, with 10% of forest cover lost between 1980 and 2000. This has led to a lowering of groundwater levels, flash floods, and increased desertification. Deforestation is expanding due to human activity, pests, disease, and fires. By 2000, over 1.2 million hectares of forested land had been invaded by pests, and the reforestation rate hangs below 15%.
To combat these issues, the Mongolian government has implemented several initiatives. They have created a National Committee to Combat Desertification and a National Center to Combat Desertification, spending $24.6 million on 14 anti-desertification projects between 1990 and 2001. Additionally, the country's Billion Tree National Movement aims to plant and nurture billions of trees by 2030 to increase forest cover to 9%. This will help absorb more carbon from the atmosphere, increase water resources, and accelerate climate-friendly business development.
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Mining
Mongolia has a long history of mining, and the country is rich in mineral wealth, including gold, copper, and coal. Mining has been identified as a contributor to air pollution in Mongolia, particularly in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar. The side effects of mining can lead to increased levels of fine particulate matter in the air, especially from poorly maintained mining sites. This includes particles such as silica dust, finely ground soil, and gravel dust, which can have detrimental effects on air quality.
The Mongolian government has recognized the urgent need to improve air quality and has implemented measures such as banning raw coal consumption and introducing refined coal briquettes at subsidized prices. However, these efforts have been challenging due to economic factors, with lower-income families struggling to afford cleaner fuel sources.
In addition to coal burning and mining, other factors contributing to air pollution in Mongolia include vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, and agricultural practices. The combination of these factors has led to extremely high levels of PM2.5, a harmful fine particulate matter, in the country's air.
To address the complex issue of air pollution in Mongolia, a multifaceted approach is necessary. This includes improving access to cleaner and more affordable energy sources, implementing measures to reduce traffic congestion and vehicular emissions, and regulating industrial and agricultural practices to minimize their environmental impact. By tackling these issues comprehensively, Mongolia can improve air quality and protect the health and well-being of its citizens, especially vulnerable groups such as children.
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Migration to Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, is home to half of the country's population of three million. The city has been infamous for being one of the most polluted cities in the world since 2005. The air pollution in Ulaanbaatar is caused by coal-burning stoves in the "ger" districts, which are informal settlements that have sprung up due to the migration of people from rural and provincial areas.
Ih nuudel, or "the big migration", is the term used by locals to describe the migration of rural populations to Ulaanbaatar. This pattern of migration has been occurring for two decades due to various factors, including poverty, unemployment, low incomes, desertification, natural disasters, and, more recently, climate change. Mongolia's unique geographical location and dependence of the rural population on animal husbandry make the country particularly vulnerable to environmental changes and severe weather events.
The increasing trend of rural-to-urban migration in Mongolia has resulted in challenges for the government, including overpopulation, rural-urban inequalities, imbalanced social development, and limited access to social services for migrants. The government attempted to curb migration to the capital by imposing a ban on migrating to Ulaanbaatar between 2017 and 2020. However, this ban was ultimately unsuccessful and only served to worsen the situation for migrants, as it prevented them from obtaining residency and accessing public services.
The migration to Ulaanbaatar is driven by the search for better economic opportunities and access to public services, as well as the negative impacts of climate change on traditional livelihoods. Droughts and harsh winters, known as "dzuds", have caused widespread loss of livestock, leading herders to migrate to the city in search of alternative sources of income. Additionally, the end of Soviet state support and the rise in the number of livestock have contributed to the migration, as herders need to move closer to markets to turn a profit.
The scale of migration to Ulaanbaatar is significant, with around 20% of the country's population, or 600,000 people, having moved to the city in the past three decades. This has doubled the city's population and significantly increased its physical footprint, with a periphery of white yurts or "gers" surrounding the city centre.
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Frequently asked questions
Coal burning is the main source of air pollution in Mongolia, with coal stoves and power plants filling the capital, Ulaanbaatar, with smoke during the winter months.
Air pollution in Mongolia has severe health impacts, causing more than 4000 deaths every year. It is particularly harmful to children, causing respiratory diseases such as pneumonia, and leading to fetus disorders and miscarriages.
The Mongolian government has implemented a ban on raw coal and introduced subsidised "refined coal briquettes" to reduce air pollution. However, lower-income families still struggle to afford cleaner fuel options, and Ulaanbaatar continues to rank as one of the most polluted cities in the world.
In addition to coal burning, air pollution in Mongolia is also caused by vehicular emissions, mining activities, desertification, and rapid urbanisation leading to unplanned settlements.
