Brian Barton
Air pollution is a pressing issue that affects the lives of people worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 99% of the global population lives in areas where air pollution exceeds recommended guidelines. This has led to a range of health issues, from respiratory problems to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. The top 10 pollutants contributing to this global issue include a mix of natural and man-made sources, with the latter being the primary driver in cities. These pollutants range from particulate matter, such as PM2.5 and PM10, to toxic metals like mercury and lead, as well as ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Particulate Matter (PM) | PM2.5, PM10, coarse particles, fine particles, UFPs |
| Composition | Dirt, dust, smoke, liquid droplets, sulphate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, water |
| Health Effects | Respiratory illnesses, asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, reduced lung function, reduced life expectancy, cardiovascular issues, cerebrovascular issues, lung tissue damage, cancer |
| Sources | Fuel combustion in motor vehicles, industrial activities, power plants, construction sites, waste burning, fires, natural sources (wildfires, dust storms, volcanic activity) |
| Carbon Monoxide (CO) | N/A |
| Ozone (O3) | N/A |
| Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) | N/A |
| Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) | N/A |
| Mercury | Used in artisanal gold mining, can cause brain damage and death |
| Lead | Released during lead-acid battery recycling and manufacturing, lowers IQ and causes long-term health issues |
| Sewage | Untreated sewage is a significant pollution problem |
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What You'll Learn
Particulate matter (PM) from fuel combustion in motor vehicles
Particulate matter (PM) is a general term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. PM2.5, or fine particles, are those with a diameter of less than 2.5 μm, and they are produced by fuel combustion in motor vehicles, power generation, industrial facilities, and residential fireplaces and wood stoves.
Motor vehicles, particularly those with diesel engines, are a significant contributor to PM2.5 emissions. Diesel engines have traditionally had the highest emission rates of PM, and the black smoke they emit is a well-known source of air pollution. While gasoline engine particulate emissions have been less studied, the harmful effects of diesel engine PM are also assumed to be associated with gasoline PM.
The composition of PM varies depending on engine type, engine speed, fuel composition, lubricating oil formulation, and emission control technology. It typically includes a carbon core with organic compounds, nitrates, sulfates, metals, and irritants such as acrolein, ammonia, acids, and fuel vapors. Incomplete combustion of fuel, lubricating oil, and engine wear are the main sources of these particles.
The health risks associated with PM2.5 are well documented. As inhalable particles, they can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, causing respiratory issues, cardiovascular problems, and cerebrovascular issues such as strokes. Long-term exposure can also reduce lung function and life expectancy. Regulatory efforts and technologies, such as diesel particulate filters (DPF), have been implemented to reduce PM emissions from motor vehicles.
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Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from transport
While there are numerous pollutants that pose a threat to human health and the environment, carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) from transport are significant contributors to air pollution and have detrimental effects on ecosystems and human well-being.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas produced primarily by the burning of fossil fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, in motor vehicles. It is a major pollutant in the atmosphere, and its presence in the blood reduces the capacity of hemoglobin to carry oxygen, leading to adverse health outcomes, including accidental deaths from poisoning. Transportation, including cars, trucks, and buses, is a significant source of carbon monoxide emissions, with the transport sector being a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions in the United States.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is another harmful pollutant from transport. It is produced by the combustion of fossil fuels and is a component of nitrogen oxides (NOx). NO2 contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, which irritates the respiratory system and increases the risk of respiratory infections. Heavy-duty vehicles, such as trucks and buses, play a significant role in emitting NOx and other pollutants, impacting communities located near ports and interstates.
The impact of these pollutants on human health is well documented. Exposure to carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide can cause respiratory issues, including coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity. Additionally, nitrogen dioxide weakens the body's defenses against respiratory infections such as pneumonia and influenza. Long-term exposure to these pollutants can also lead to serious health issues, as evidenced by the adverse effects of lead exposure on children's intelligence and the toxic effects of mercury on miners and their families.
To address the pollution caused by transport, several measures are being implemented. The EPA, for instance, has developed standards for aircraft emissions and encourages the use of low-emission vehicles. Electric trucks and buses are being introduced, and cities like New York and Los Angeles are committed to transitioning to zero-emission transit buses. Additionally, strategies to reduce vehicle miles traveled and improve fuel efficiency are being explored. These efforts are crucial steps towards mitigating the environmental and health impacts of carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide pollution from transport.
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Mercury vapour from artisanal mining
The health risks associated with mercury vapour exposure are severe, including neurological damage, frequent and severe headaches, dizziness, vision and motor disorders, and other health issues. The dangers are particularly acute for miners, with inhaled mercury leading to respiratory illnesses and even death. The practice of burning the amalgam without a mercury-capturing system releases about 95% of the mercury into the environment, affecting not only miners but also their families and surrounding communities. The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) estimates that approximately 15 million miners and their communities are at risk, including 4.5 million women and up to 1 million children.
Projects and initiatives are underway to reduce mercury emissions from ASGM. For example, the use of retorts can collect mercury vapour and prevent its release into the atmosphere, while also allowing for the recycling and reuse of mercury. The Minamata Convention on Mercury aims to reduce and eliminate the use of mercury in ASGM, and regulations in the EU prohibit mercury use in the sector.
Despite these efforts, the use of mercury in ASGM continues to rise, especially in developing countries, due to its simplicity and low cost. The shift from mechanical extraction to mercury-aided extraction in artisanal mining has exposed miners and their communities to this toxic chemical. Educational campaigns are necessary to change perceptions and behaviours around mercury use, and to decrease the environmental and health risks associated with artisanal mining.
In conclusion, mercury vapour from artisanal mining is a critical global issue that requires urgent attention. The toxic chemical not only endangers miners but also their families, communities, and the environment. Collaborative efforts between governments, institutions, and local communities are needed to address the dangers of mercury use and promote sustainable and safe mining practices.
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Lead from lead-acid battery manufacturing
Lead is one of the top 10 pollutants in the world. The lead released during the course of lead-acid battery recycling increases the levels in children's blood to 50 to 100 micrograms per deciliter, which is up to 10 times higher than the levels deemed safe by the World Health Organization. Each 10-microgram per deciliter rise in lead levels lowers intelligence levels by four to seven points on IQ tests, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Lead-acid batteries are an integral part of society. Without them, engines do not crank, and critical equipment can fail if the power is interrupted. Their simple design remains a lasting feat in human innovation. Lead-acid batteries are a type of rechargeable battery first invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté. They were the first type of rechargeable battery to be invented.
The manufacturing process of lead-acid batteries involves creating plates, which are then connected to make up the battery grid. There are two methods for manufacturing plates: oxide and grid production, and pasting and curing. The first step in oxide and grid production is making lead oxide from lead ingots. After creating lead oxide, it is combined with sponge lead and turned into plates. The positive plate, or cathode, is made of lead oxide, while the negative plate, or anode, is made of sponge lead. A non-conductive separator is installed between the two to prevent the plates from touching and causing a short circuit.
The plates are then immersed in an electrolyte solution of 30% to 50% sulfuric acid, which acts as a conductor of ions so that electrons can be transferred between the positive and negative active materials of the battery. The battery works through a complex electrochemical reaction that involves sending and receiving electrons between the anode and cathode plates. This reaction allows the battery to store and discharge electrical current. The amount of charge that a lead-acid battery can store is dependent on the size and number of plates, as well as the amount of electrolyte in the battery case.
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Sewage and urban air pollution
In many developing countries, municipal and industrial wastewater is often discharged into rivers and oceans without adequate treatment, leading to water pollution. For instance, in Brazil, most urban sewage is dumped untreated into rivers, impacting the structure and functioning of river ecosystems. Water pollution has severe consequences for human health and the environment. According to a study published in The Lancet, water pollution caused approximately 1.8 million deaths in 2015. Contaminated water can spread waterborne pathogens, including disease-causing bacteria and viruses from human and animal waste, leading to illnesses such as cholera, giardia, and typhoid.
Urban air pollution, on the other hand, refers to the presence of harmful substances in the air within urban areas, typically from traffic, transportation, industrial activities, power plants, construction sites, waste burning, and fires. Particulate matter (PM), including coarse particles (PM10) and fine particles (PM2.5), are common pollutants in urban air. These particles can be composed of dirt, dust, smoke, and tiny drops of liquid, and they can affect human health when inhaled. PM10 particles can irritate the throat, eyes, and nose, while PM2.5 particles are small enough to lodge in lung tissue, causing respiratory illnesses and reducing lung function over time.
Additionally, urban air pollution includes pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulphur dioxide (SO2), which can have adverse health effects with both short-term and long-term exposure. The combustion of polluting fuels in households and industrial processes contributes significantly to urban air pollution. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 2.4 billion people cook and heat their homes with polluting fuels, leading to 3.2 million premature deaths from household air pollution annually.
Addressing sewage and urban air pollution is crucial for protecting human health and the environment. While these issues have been mitigated in developed nations, they persist in the developing world, emphasizing the need for effective wastewater treatment, air quality regulations, and sustainable practices to reduce pollution and its associated impacts.
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