Greta Jimenez
Air pollution is a major threat to global health and prosperity, causing more than 6.5 million deaths each year. It is caused by a mix of hazardous substances from both human-made and natural sources. While natural sources of air pollution include wildfires, volcanic activity, and dust storms, human-made sources are the leading contributors to air pollution in cities. These include vehicle emissions, industrial activity, and the burning of biomass. One of the most dangerous pollutants is particulate matter (PM), composed of chemicals such as sulfates, nitrates, carbon, or mineral dust. PM2.5, a subset of PM, is particularly harmful as it can be inhaled into lung tissue and enter the bloodstream, leading to serious health problems. Other dangerous pollutants include ozone, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur oxides. To protect human health and the environment, international agreements such as the Stockholm Convention have been established to ban or restrict certain pollutants.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Top Pollutants | Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Ozone, Soot, Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) |
| Sources of Pollutants | Vehicle emissions, fuel oils, natural gas, manufacturing by-products, power generation, coal-fueled power plants, chemical production, wildfires, volcanic activity, dust or sandstorms, industrial emissions, transportation, agricultural burning |
| Health Effects | Respiratory issues, eye/nose/throat irritation, lung tissue damage, cancer, early death, asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, heart disease, allergies, reproductive disorders, nervous system damage, immune system disruption |
| Impact on Environment | Environmental damage, climate change, intensified wildfires, air quality degradation |
| Regions Affected | Central & South Asia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, DRC, Kyrgyzstan, US |
| Actions to Address Pollution | Regulations, reduced emissions, investment in green technologies, bans/restrictions on toxic chemicals, cleanup efforts |
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What You'll Learn
Particulate matter (PM2.5) from transport and industry
Particulate matter (PM2.5) refers to particles in the air that are 2.5 micrometres or less in diameter. To put this into perspective, a human hair is about 70 micrometres in diameter, meaning that about 30 fine particles could fit within its width. These particles are so small that they can be inhaled into the deepest parts of the lungs and may even enter the bloodstream.
PM2.5 is primarily produced by the combustion of gasoline, oil, diesel fuel, or wood, as well as through various industrial processes and automobile emissions. Transport is a major contributor to PM2.5 levels, with emissions from cars, trucks, trains, planes, and ships all playing a significant role. The demand for transportation is closely linked to economic activity and standards of living, and as these factors increase, so do transport emissions.
Industries that utilise bulk material handling, combustion, and minerals processing, such as brickworks, refineries, cement works, iron and steelmaking, quarrying, and fossil fuel power plants, also contribute significantly to PM2.5 levels. The particles emitted by these industries vary in size, shape, and chemical composition and may contain inorganic ions, metallic compounds, elemental carbon, organic compounds, and compounds from the earth's crust.
The health risks associated with PM2.5 exposure are significant. Research has linked long-term exposure to premature death, particularly in individuals with chronic heart or lung diseases. It can also cause reduced lung function growth in children and adverse effects in older adults, infants, and individuals with asthma. Short-term effects of exposure include difficulty breathing, chest pain, wheezing, coughing, and general respiratory discomfort.
Due to the health risks posed by PM2.5, organisations such as the US EPA and Safe Work Australia have set workplace exposure standards and maximum ambient air quality standards to protect human health.
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Ozone and nitrogen dioxide from vehicle emissions
Ozone and nitrogen dioxide are among the six common air pollutants identified in the Clean Air Act. They are formed by the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicle engines and the evaporation of fuel itself. While ozone is not directly emitted by automobiles, it is formed in the atmosphere through a complex set of chemical reactions involving hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and sunlight.
Ozone is a gas composed of three atoms of oxygen. Stratospheric ozone is beneficial as it protects living organisms from ultraviolet radiation from the sun. However, ground-level ozone is harmful to human health and the environment. It is the main ingredient in "smog" and can trigger various health problems, especially for children, the elderly, and people with lung diseases such as asthma. Ground-level ozone is formed by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, and other sources. It is most likely to reach unhealthy levels on hot sunny days in urban areas but can also affect rural regions through wind transportation.
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is another pollutant emitted by vehicles. It is formed through the combustion of fuel in engines. Older vehicles tend to emit more nitrogen dioxide due to the deterioration of emission control technology over time. Nitrogen dioxide is one of the nitrogen oxides (NOx) that contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone.
Reducing vehicle emissions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons is crucial to mitigating the formation of ground-level ozone. Encouragingly, newer vehicles generally emit fewer pollutants due to increasingly stringent emission standards. Additionally, transitioning to alternative fuels or electric vehicles can help reduce ozone formation.
Overall, ozone and nitrogen dioxide from vehicle emissions significantly contribute to air pollution and pose risks to human health and the environment. Addressing these pollutants through regulatory measures, technological advancements, and fuel choices is essential to improving air quality and safeguarding public health.
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Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) from industry and agriculture
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are characterised by their persistence in the environment and their ability to bioaccumulate in living organisms. POPs are of particular concern due to their potential impacts on human health and the environment. They can be intentionally produced, such as pesticides and insecticides used in agriculture, or unintentionally produced as by-products of industrial processes.
In agriculture, POPs such as DDT, toxaphene, and endosulfans have been widely used as pesticides and insecticides to control pests and increase crop yields. While these chemicals have proven beneficial in pest and disease control, they also have detrimental effects on human health and the environment. For example, DDT is toxic to birds, causing reproduction issues due to eggshell thinning, and has been linked to chronic health issues in humans with long-term exposure. Similarly, endosulfans have been linked to congenital physical disorders, mental retardation, and death in humans, as well as being toxic to aquatic and terrestrial organisms.
In the industrial sector, POPs have been utilised in various manufacturing and industrial processes. For instance, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) have been used in electrical transformers, hydraulic fluids, and paints. Other POPs, such as dioxins and furans, are unintentionally produced as by-products of industrial processes, including combustion and incineration. These compounds are released into the environment through effluent releases, atmospheric deposition, and runoff, eventually settling in aquatic sediments. Once sequestered in these sediments, POPs can remain out of circulation for extended periods. However, if disturbed, they can re-enter the ecosystem and food chain, leading to potential local and global contamination.
The recognition of the adverse effects of POPs has led to global efforts to reduce their production and release into the environment. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, held in 2001, addressed the need to eliminate or severely restrict the use of POPs. This convention initially recognised twelve POPs, including aldrin, chlordane, DDT, and dioxins, placing a global ban on these compounds. Since then, the list of regulated POPs has expanded to include additional compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and brominated flame retardants. International agreements, such as the Virtual Elimination of Persistent Toxic Substances in the Great Lakes between the United States and Canada, have also been established to reduce emissions from toxic substances and protect vital water resources.
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Natural sources: wildfires, volcanic activity, dust storms
Natural sources of pollution include wildfires, volcanic activity, and dust storms. These events release hazardous substances into the atmosphere, which can have detrimental effects on the environment and human health.
Wildfires are unplanned fires that burn in natural areas such as forests, grasslands, or prairies. They produce smoke, which is a mixture of hazardous air pollutants, including PM2.5, NO2, ozone, aromatic hydrocarbons, and lead. Wildfires also release large quantities of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change. The impact of wildfires on the environment, property, and human health can be significant, especially when they occur near populated areas. Wildfire smoke can cause and exacerbate various diseases, including respiratory issues, and it has been linked to cognitive impairment and memory loss.
Volcanic eruptions release harmful particles, including volcanic gases and ash, which can have serious health implications. Volcanic gases, such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide, are invisible and odorless, making it difficult for people to avoid exposure. Inhaling these gases and ash can irritate the respiratory system and worsen symptoms for individuals with asthma. It is important for people in proximity to volcanic activity to follow local guidance and take precautions to protect their health.
Dust storms are atmospheric phenomena characterized by strong winds carrying large amounts of dust particles, reducing visibility and impacting air quality. These storms can transport pollutants, allergens, and harmful substances, compromising the air quality in affected regions. The inhalation of fine dust particles can irritate the respiratory system, exacerbate existing conditions, and increase the risk of respiratory infections. Similar to volcanic activity, dust storms can be particularly harmful to individuals with respiratory conditions such as asthma.
While natural sources of pollution are significant contributors, it is important to recognize that human-made sources, such as vehicle emissions, industrial processes, and power generation, also play a substantial role in air pollution.
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Indoor air pollution from outdoor sources and indoor emissions
Air pollution is a mix of hazardous substances from both human-made and natural sources. Outdoor air pollutants can enter buildings through open doors, windows, ventilation systems, and structural cracks. For example, harmful smoke from chimneys can re-enter homes and pollute the indoor air. Some pollutants enter through building foundations, like radon, which forms in the ground as uranium in rocks and soils decays. In areas with contaminated water sources, volatile chemicals can enter buildings through the same cracks in foundations. These chemicals can also enter indoor air when building occupants use the water, for example, during showering or cooking. People can also bring in outdoor pollutants on their shoes and clothing.
Indoor air pollution (IAP) is a serious threat to human health, causing millions of deaths each year. The main sources of indoor ozone are the outdoor atmosphere and the operation of electrical devices. Common machines emitting indoor ozone gas include photocopiers, disinfecting devices, air-purifying devices, and other office devices. Combustion sources and cooking activities contribute to carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and particulate matter (PM). Globally, household cooking with solid fuels is a strong contributor to outdoor air pollution. In the United States, cooking appliances using natural gas combustion produce NOx and other air pollutants that electric stoves do not. Both electric and gas cooking produce PM and ultrafine particles, but their nature and abundance depend on multiple factors, including the cooking method, oil, temperature, food type, and additives.
Residential and commercial cooking are major sources of indoor air pollution that also contribute to outdoor air pollution. The production, distribution, and utilisation of natural gas are all sources of primary and secondary air pollutants. Leaks can occur throughout the system, contributing to global warming and indoor air pollution. Wood burning is another source of indoor air pollution, producing more than 90% of fine particulate matter (PM) emissions from the residential heating sector and 22% of overall primary PM emissions. In areas with higher concentrations of homes using wood-burning appliances, indoor wood-burning appliances can be the dominant source of ambient air pollution in winter.
Human daily activities generally cause IAP by releasing waste gases, tobacco smoke, pesticides, solvents, cleaning agents, particulates, dust, mould, fibres, and allergens. Humans also create favourable conditions for the development of mould, fungus, pollen, spores, bacteria, viruses, and insects. Energy-efficient building construction, increased use of synthetic building materials, furnishings, personal care products, pesticides, and household cleaners have all contributed to increased indoor concentrations of some pollutants.
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