Nuclear Radiation's Watery Grave: Pollution's Hidden Danger

Water pollution is a pressing issue, and radioactive pollution of water is an emerging global concern for human health. Radioactive materials, also called radionuclides, are both naturally occurring and human-made. Nuclear reactors, nuclear waste, and nuclear calamities are major sources of water contamination. Nuclear power plants release atomic waste, and nuclear submarines have caused radioactive contamination in marine environments. Radioactive elements can also be introduced into water through medical treatments and industrial activities. The ingestion of radioactive elements through drinking water is a major risk pathway, and the potential health effects of exposure to different types of radionuclides require further research.

Nuclear weapons and energy development

The United States' journey into the nuclear domain began with the Manhattan Project during World War II, which aimed to create a nuclear weapon. This project was shrouded in secrecy, and the first self-sustaining, controlled nuclear chain reaction was achieved in 1942. After the war, the focus shifted to two paths: developing nuclear weapons and harnessing nuclear energy for commercial energy production. The former was driven by the desire to maintain a strong nuclear stockpile as a cornerstone of national security, while the latter sought to utilise nuclear power for peaceful purposes, such as generating clean energy and propelling naval vessels.

The US Department of Energy, created in 1977, plays a pivotal role in both nuclear weapons and energy development. It oversees the modernisation of nuclear weapons, waste disposal, and the decontamination of sites from previous nuclear endeavours. The National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA), a semi-autonomous agency within the department, is responsible for developing, maintaining, and sustaining the US nuclear stockpile. The NNSA works closely with the Department of Defense (DoD) to ensure the effectiveness and reliability of nuclear weapons, filling deterrence gaps, and protecting against adversary subversion.

Nuclear energy development has also made significant strides, with more than 400 commercial reactors operating worldwide, including 92 in the United States. Nuclear energy currently generates 10% of the world's clean power and nearly half of the United States' electricity needs. It is expected to play a crucial role in meeting net-zero emissions targets by 2050. Additionally, nuclear technology has found applications in medical imaging and treatments, crop and livestock protection, and space exploration.

However, the production of nuclear weapons and energy has also led to concerns about water pollution. Radioactive elements can be introduced into water through various pathways, including nuclear waste, uranium mining, and industrial activities that disturb natural radioactive elements in the environment. These contaminants can infiltrate groundwater aquifers, posing risks to human health and the environment. While public drinking water systems have measures in place to test and filter out radionuclides, inconsistent and incomplete testing across the country remains a concern.

Nuclear waste from power plants

Nuclear waste contains radioactive materials, such as uranium and plutonium, which are extremely hazardous. These substances have long half-lives and remain radioactive for thousands of years. When nuclear waste is not adequately stored or treated, it can leak or be released into the environment, including water bodies.

One of the primary ways nuclear waste from power plants causes water pollution is through direct discharge into water sources. In some cases, nuclear power plants may release untreated or partially treated wastewater into rivers, lakes, or oceans. This release can contain radioactive isotopes and heavy metals, which can accumulate in aquatic organisms and contaminate the water supply.

Additionally, nuclear waste can also indirectly pollute water sources through runoff and seepage. If nuclear waste is not securely stored and disposed of, rainwater can carry radioactive contaminants into nearby water bodies. This runoff can also infiltrate groundwater reserves, making it challenging to remove the contaminants.

Furthermore, nuclear waste storage facilities located near water bodies pose additional risks. Over time, radioactive materials can leak from storage containers and migrate towards water sources. Accidents, human errors, or natural disasters can also lead to the release of radioactive waste into the environment, including water.

The presence of radioactive isotopes in water can have detrimental effects on both human health and ecosystems. Ingesting contaminated water can lead to an increased risk of cancer and other health issues. Radioactive materials can accumulate in the food chain, affecting aquatic life and ultimately impacting humans who consume contaminated fish and seafood.

Uranium mining

In Brazil, for example, there is a uranium ore-mining area (the Ore Treatment Unit of the Brazilian Nuclear Industries - UTM/INB) where uranium mine effluent is treated with slaked lime before being discharged into the Antas reservoir. However, studies have shown that the treated effluent is still correlated with elevated concentrations of uranium, manganese, aluminium, zinc, and fluoride, as well as high electrical conductivity and pH values, indicating toxicity.

To mitigate the impacts of uranium mining on water quality, monitoring efforts are crucial. This can be done by state or federal regulatory authorities, local community groups, or local authorities such as cities or municipal water purveyors. Funding for monitoring can come from various sources, including the "mill tax" on per kilowatt of energy derived from mined uranium. Additionally, water treatment systems such as ion exchange water softeners and reverse osmosis can help reduce the levels of radionuclides in water.

Radioactive iodine in medical treatments

Radioactive iodine therapy, also known as radioiodine therapy or RAI, has been used to treat thyroid cancer and hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) since the 1940s. The thyroid gland requires iodine to produce thyroid hormones, which are typically obtained through the consumption of iodised salt and certain foods. In RAI therapy, the thyroid absorbs radioactive iodine, which kills thyroid cells using radiation. This treatment is recommended when other treatments for hyperthyroidism, such as antithyroid medications, have been ineffective or are not suitable for the patient. It is also used to treat certain types of thyroid cancer, including papillary and follicular thyroid cancer, especially when cancerous tissue could not be removed through surgery or the cancer has spread to other parts of the body.

While RAI therapy is generally safe and well-tolerated, it carries some risks and side effects. It usually leads to the permanent destruction of the thyroid, requiring patients to take thyroid hormone medication for life. Patients may experience dry mouth and altered sense of taste due to the impact of radioiodine on salivary glands. RAI therapy can also affect fertility in both men and women, with potential impacts on sperm count and ovarian function. Women are advised to avoid pregnancy for at least a year after treatment, and radioiodine can negatively affect fetal development if taken during pregnancy. Additionally, patients treated with RAI may need to be hospitalised for a few days after treatment and follow isolation protocols to prevent radiation exposure to others.

Radioactive iodine used in medical treatments can potentially contribute to water pollution. Radioactive materials, known as radionuclides, can be introduced into water sources through various human activities, including medical treatments. While public drinking water systems have measures in place to test and filter out contaminants like radionuclides, ensuring they meet standards set by organisations like the EPA, concerns have been raised about the presence of radioactive elements in drinking water. For instance, the Environmental Working Group estimates that the drinking water of over 170 million Americans may contain radioactive elements that increase the risk of cancer.

Radioactive isotopes in sewage treatment plants

Radioactive materials, also known as radionuclides, are present in the environment due to both natural and human-made sources. While small amounts of radiation are typical in the air, water, and soil, excessive exposure to radiation can pose health risks. Radioactive isotopes, such as iodine-131, can enter sewage treatment plants through various pathways, leading to potential contamination.

Hospitals, decontamination laundries, research facilities, and manufacturers licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) may discharge low-level radioactive wastes into municipal sewer systems. These wastes can include radioactive isotopes used in medical treatments or research activities. For example, the Ann Arbor, Michigan Waste Water Treatment Plant detected radioactive iodine-131 in sewage sludge following radioiodine treatments at a nearby hospital.

The presence of radioactive isotopes in sewage treatment plants can have environmental and health implications. Incineration of sewage sludge containing radioactive materials can release isotopes into the atmosphere, potentially exposing workers and the public. However, studies on the health effects of radioactive materials in sewage sludge have been inconclusive, and the NRC has stated that elevated radiation levels at certain sites do not pose significant risks.

To address this issue, regulatory action is needed to control radioactive contamination at sewage treatment plants. The NRC has been criticized for not adequately regulating the discharge of low-level radioactive wastes into municipal sewer systems. The full extent of contamination at treatment plants nationwide is unknown due to limited inspections and a lack of mandatory testing for radioactive materials in sewage sludge.

The potential impact of radioactive isotopes in sewage treatment plants extends beyond the plants themselves. Substances derived from sewage sludge, such as ash and by-products, can be used for agricultural and residential purposes, leading to indirect exposure to radioactive materials. Additionally, radioactive contaminants can infiltrate groundwater aquifers, further spreading the contamination.

Frequently asked questions