Meghan Hodges
China is the world's most populous country, with 1.4 billion people as of 2019. It is also the fourth-largest country in the world by area. China's rapid industrialization, urbanization, and immense urban growth have led to a significant air and water pollution problem. In 2019, China ranked as the 11th dirtiest country in the world. While the country has made notable progress in reducing pollution in recent years, with levels of PM2.5 decreasing since 2014, many cities in China continue to experience high levels of air pollution, which poses a significant threat to public health.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of cities in China with high levels of air pollution | 74 |
| Number of premature deaths caused by air and water pollution | 760,000 per year |
| Number of premature deaths caused by air pollution | 350,000-400,000 per year |
| Number of premature deaths caused by poor-quality indoor air | 300,000 per year |
| Number of premature deaths caused by poor water quality | 60,000 per year |
| China's rank in the list of the world's dirtiest countries in 2019 | 11 |
| China's cleanest city in 2019 | Linzhi, Tibet |
| China's dirtiest city in 2024 | Hotan, Xinjiang |
| China's capital and second-largest city | Beijing |
| China's largest city | Shanghai |
| Percentage of China's power produced by coal | 66% |
| China's annual tonnage of coal used in 2014 | 4 billion |
| Number of cities that reduced PM2.5 by 33% between 2013 and 2017 | 74 |
| Percentage of PM2.5 reduced in China between 2005 and 2015 | 47% |
| Percentage of PM2.5 reduced in China between 2014 and 2022 | 41% |
| Percentage of China's population living in areas exceeding the WHO guideline for annual average particulate pollution levels | 99.9% |
| Percentage of China's population living in areas exceeding the national standard for annual average particulate pollution levels | 30.9% |
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What You'll Learn
- Pollution sources: coal, fossil fuels, industrial emissions
- Health impacts: premature deaths, respiratory issues, reduced life expectancy
- Water pollution: severe water shortages, unfit for human use
- Air quality monitoring: static stations, low-cost sensors, AQI
- Pollution control measures: renewable energy, waste disposal, afforestation
Pollution sources: coal, fossil fuels, industrial emissions
China's rapid economic development has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. Among 337 cities, more than 40% of the major air pollutant concentrations exceeded Chinese standards. The burning of fossil fuels, especially coal, has caused severe air pollution in northern China, leading to a reduction in life expectancy by 5.5 years.
Coal combustion is a primary source of particulate matter (PM) pollution, and Chinese power plants emit significantly more pollutants due to the lack of flue gas treatment. Coal combustion releases contaminants such as sulfur, arsenic, silica, fluorine, lead, and mercury into the air, causing both indoor and outdoor air quality issues. The combustion of biomass and coal, or "solid fuels," is the dominant source of indoor air pollution in China, contributing to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
The Chinese government has taken steps to address this issue by targeting large industries and household coal usage. In 2018, the government announced a plan to replace coal-burning heaters with natural gas and electric heating systems in 1.2 million homes across 11 cities. However, due to a shortage of natural gas, the policy was reversed in 2019. Additionally, China has committed to peaking carbon emissions by 2030 and increasing the share of non-fossil fuels to 20% of total consumption by 2060.
Vehicle emissions are another significant contributor to air pollution in China, especially in larger cities. The total number of vehicles in China reached 360 million in 2020, with vehicle emissions accounting for about 45% of Beijing's air pollution and 30% in Shanghai. To address this, China implemented the "China VI" standards in 2020, enforcing stricter emission standards for vehicles.
While China has made progress in reducing air pollution, it continues to face challenges in balancing economic growth with the social and environmental well-being of its citizens.
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Health impacts: premature deaths, respiratory issues, reduced life expectancy
Air pollution in China is a pressing issue, causing a range of adverse health effects on the population. The high levels of air pollution in Chinese cities have been linked to a staggering number of premature deaths. Estimates vary, with some sources citing 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths annually due to outdoor air pollution, while others suggest the figure could be as high as 760,000 when including deaths attributed to water pollution. Chinese environmental experts predicted that annual premature deaths from outdoor air pollution would reach 550,000 in 2020.
In addition to premature mortality, air pollution in China has been associated with a range of respiratory issues. Fine particles in the air can cause asthma, bronchitis, and acute and chronic respiratory symptoms such as shortness of breath and painful breathing. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has identified that particulate matter, formed from primary sources such as coal combustion and traffic emissions, poses a significant risk to respiratory health.
The impact of air pollution on life expectancy in China is evident. Studies have shown that long-term exposure to air pollution contributes to a significant loss of life expectancy. A regression discontinuity design, exploiting a Chinese policy that provided free coal for heating in cities north of the Huai River, revealed a spatial discontinuity of reduced life expectancy of more than five years. This suggests that air pollution has enormous health costs and significant public health implications.
Furthermore, indoor pollution, largely from cooking with polluting fuels and technologies, claims the lives of an additional 300,000 people annually. Poor water quality also contributes to 60,000 premature deaths each year. The Chinese government has made efforts to improve environmental protection, and China is one of the few countries rapidly increasing its forest cover, helping to reduce air and water pollution. However, the immense urban growth of Chinese cities continues to increase the demand for consumer goods, vehicles, and energy, which, in turn, contributes to the burning of fossil fuels and the prevalence of smog.
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Water pollution: severe water shortages, unfit for human use
China is the world's biggest water user, accounting for 13% of the world's freshwater consumption. This is used for drinking, washing clothes, bathing, cooking, cleaning, industrial manufacturing, household plumbing, agriculture, livestock, and energy production. However, China's water resources are affected by both severe water shortages and severe water pollution.
The country's rapid population increase, rapid economic growth, and lax environmental oversight have increased water demand and pollution. In addition, rapid climate change has led to shorter rainy seasons and melting glaciers that feed the Yellow River. The river's northern reaches, which flow through nine provinces, receive just 20-25 inches of rainfall per year, while some southeastern coastal areas receive over 80 inches. Climate change is likely to worsen water scarcity.
China's water crisis is both natural and man-made. The country's northern regions are arid due to geography and climate patterns, but human activity has exacerbated these effects. The growing population, increasing number of factories, and water-intensive agriculture have put a strain on water resources. Overgrazing by livestock has turned grasslands into sandy deserts, causing ecosystems to lose their natural water-trapping capabilities and become even drier.
Water shortages affect over half of China's cities, and 70% of its rivers and lakes are contaminated. In 2018, 6.9% of the water in China's river basins was deemed so polluted it was unfit for any use, and another 18.9% was only suitable for agricultural or industrial applications. The Hai River basin, including the major industrial areas of Hebei and Tianjin, is the most polluted of China's major basins.
China has made notable commitments to reducing water pollution, and it has seen improvements in environmental protection in recent years. In 2015, the State Council issued the Water Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, setting targets for 2030. The National People's Congress passed major revisions to the Water Pollution Prevention and Control Law in 2018.
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Air quality monitoring: static stations, low-cost sensors, AQI
Air pollution in China has been a major source of concern since the Industrial Revolution. A 1997 World Bank report stated that hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness have been caused by exposure to industrial air pollution in China. More recently, a draft 2007 report by the World Bank and SEPA estimated that up to 760,000 people die prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution, with 350,000–400,000 of those deaths attributed specifically to high levels of air pollution in Chinese cities.
To address this critical issue, China has invested significant sums into efforts to reduce air pollution. For instance, in 2013, China's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution. These investments have yielded positive results, with China reducing PM2.5 by 47% between 2005 and 2015. In 2014, China announced a "war against pollution", and by 2022, the country had achieved a 41% reduction in fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) compared to 2013 levels. As a consequence of these improvements, the average Chinese citizen can expect to live two years longer compared to 2013, assuming sustained reductions in pollution.
Despite this progress, air pollution remains a significant challenge in China. As of 2024, 99.9% of China's 1.4 billion people live in areas where the annual average particulate pollution level exceeds the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline of 5 µg/m³, even though China's overall particulate pollution average complies with its less stringent national standard of 35 µg/m³. This discrepancy underscores the urgency of continued efforts to improve air quality in the country.
Air quality monitoring plays a crucial role in combating air pollution. Traditional approaches to air quality monitoring in China have relied on networks of static and sparse measurement stations. However, the rapid urban growth of Chinese cities has driven an increased demand for low-cost sensors to manage air pollution more effectively. These sensors offer cost-effective solutions without compromising accuracy and can be easily deployed in various settings, including construction sites, smart cities projects, educational institutions, and indoor environments such as offices, homes, and schools.
One example of a low-cost sensor solution is offered by PurpleAir, which provides real-time air quality monitoring through its industry-leading sensors that measure particulate pollution (PM2.5), temperature, humidity, and pressure. Their sensors are priced at a fraction of commercial-grade monitors, making them accessible and widely adopted by individuals and organizations alike. Another company, Prana Air, offers both indoor and outdoor air quality monitors that track various pollutants, including PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO2, SO2, O3, noise, and more. These monitors provide users with accurate and compact solutions for continuous ambient air quality monitoring (CAAQMs). Additionally, Prana Air's mobile app enables users to access real-time and historical air quality data, compare multiple data streams, and make informed decisions about their health and activities.
In conclusion, while China has made significant strides in reducing air pollution, particularly through large-scale investments and national initiatives, the country continues to face challenges in ensuring safe air quality for its citizens. The deployment of low-cost sensors and innovative monitoring solutions plays a crucial role in addressing this complex issue by empowering individuals, organizations, and governments with accurate and accessible data for effective decision-making and sustainable improvements in air quality.
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Pollution control measures: renewable energy, waste disposal, afforestation
China has been taking several measures to combat pollution, including initiatives in renewable energy, waste disposal, and afforestation.
Renewable Energy
China has been investing significant sums into efforts to reduce air pollution. For instance, in 2013, China's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution. As a result, the average concentration of PM2.5 and sulfur dioxide dropped by 42% and 68%, respectively, in the first 74 cities that implemented the 2012 Environmental Air Quality Standards. China is also the world's largest producer of electric cars.
Additionally, China has been transitioning to renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power. Renewable energy sources emit little to no greenhouse gases or pollutants into the air. They are derived from natural resources that are abundant and continuously replenished, making them key to a cleaner and more sustainable world.
Waste Disposal
China has introduced regulations requiring the proper disposal of domestic waste. While this has been criticized as insufficient and susceptible to fraud, there have been local successes, such as in the city of Tianjin, where 38,000 tons of electronic waste were disposed of properly in 2010.
China has also been strengthening its laws and regulations on plastic pollution. In April 2020, the National People's Congress of China passed a revised version of the "Solid Waste Pollution Environment Prevention Law", which prohibits the sale and use of single-use plastic products and promotes the spread of recyclable and degradable alternative products.
Afforestation
The Chinese government has announced a national-level afforestation plan to combat global warming through carbon sequestration. Research has shown that afforestation induces a significant cooling effect, in particular during the cold season, and offsets about 3.69% of the projected increase in land surface temperature due to global warming.
Overall, China has been actively implementing various pollution control measures, including promoting renewable energy, improving waste disposal practices, and undertaking afforestation initiatives, to address the issue of pollution in its cities.
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Frequently asked questions
It is unclear exactly how many cities in China are polluted, but in 2019, China ranked as the 11th dirtiest country in the world.
Coal is the largest source of air pollutants in China, with approximately 66% of the country's power produced by coal.
In 2024, the most polluted city in China was Hotan in Xinjiang province, with a recorded US AQI figure of 179.
Linzhi, situated in Tibet, was the least polluted city in China in 2019, with a recorded US AQI figure of 27.
The Chinese government has invested significant sums to combat air pollution, with $277 billion pledged in 2013 by China's Academy for Environmental Planning. There has also been a push for renewable energy, with solar power and wind energy being used as substitutes for coal.
