Bronte Wells
On May 31 and June 1, 1921, a white mob attacked Tulsa, Oklahoma's Greenwood District, also known as Black Wall Street, one of the wealthiest Black communities in the United States. The attack, sparked by a racially inflammatory newspaper report, resulted in the destruction of 35 city blocks, the death of 300 people, and injuries to 800 others. The Tulsa Race Massacre, as it came to be known, destroyed a thriving local economy and left a long-lasting impact on the community, with survivors and their families never receiving reparations or compensation for their losses.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | May 31 and June 1, 1921 |
| Location | Greenwood District, Tulsa, Oklahoma |
| Alternate Name | Black Wall Street |
| Cause | Inflammatory report in Tulsa Tribune about an alleged attempted rape of a white woman by a black man |
| Deaths | 150-300 |
| Injuries | 800 |
| Blocks Destroyed | 35 |
| Businesses Destroyed | 190 |
| People Displaced | 10,000 |
| Property Loss | $31 million in 2017 |
| Compensation | None |
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What You'll Learn
The Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921
The massacre occurred over two days, from May 31 to June 1, 1921, and was sparked by a racially inflammatory report in the Tulsa Tribune. The newspaper reported that a black man, Dick Rowland, had attempted to rape a white woman, Sarah Page, in an elevator. Despite the lack of evidence and the speculative nature of the incident, the story caused outrage among the white community in Tulsa, leading to a standoff at the courthouse where Rowland was arrested.
On the night of May 31, thousands of white residents, many deputized by the local police, swarmed through the Greenwood district. They were riled up by rumours of Rowland's actions and invaded the neighbourhood, killing black residents, looting, and burning homes and businesses. The attack was motivated by the defence of white female virtue and the perception that African Americans were an economic threat to the city.
By the end of the two-day massacre, thirty-five city blocks were looted and burned, resulting in an estimated 150-300 deaths, 800 injuries, and 10,000 people left homeless. The economic impact was devastating, with 190 businesses destroyed and property loss estimated at $31 million in 2017 values. The once-thriving Black community of Greenwood never fully recovered, and the area continues to face economic challenges into the 21st century.
In the aftermath of the massacre, lawyers offered legal assistance to African Americans jailed during the riots, and 193 lawsuits were filed claiming over $1.8 million in compensation. However, insurance companies dodged these claims, and no survivors or their families received reparations. Despite resistance, the community slowly rebuilt, and by 1922, eighty businesses had reopened. While the area thrived during the first half of the 20th century, it declined following desegregation in the 1950s as businesses and income shifted outside the Greenwood District.
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Racial violence and white perception of African Americans
On May 31, 1921, the Tulsa Tribune published a story claiming that a black man, Dick Rowland, had attempted to rape a white woman, Sarah Page. The article sparked two days of unprecedented racial violence in Tulsa, Oklahoma's Greenwood District, also known as Black Wall Street. Whites in the area refused to wait for the investigation and took to the streets, resulting in 35 city blocks being burned down, 300 people losing their lives, and 800 injured. This tragic event, known as the Tulsa Race Massacre, destroyed a thriving local economy and left a lasting impact on the Black community.
The racial framing of blacks as criminals and the defense of white female virtue were the expressed motivations for the collective racial violence. Whites' generalized perception that African Americans were "out of line" and needed to be put back in their place fueled the massacre. The success of Black entrepreneurs in the Greenwood district, despite racial discrimination and Jim Crow segregation, was seen as a threat to white-dominated American capitalism. This led to resentment and the belief that blacks were economically threatening to the city.
The media played a significant role in inflaming tensions between blacks and whites. Tulsa newspapers referred to the Greenwood district as "Little Africa" or "n—–town," and African Americans were portrayed as violent and criminal. The Tulsa World newspaper even suggested that the Ku Klux Klan could "restore order in the community," promoting white superiority and terroristic acts. The racial violence that ensued was a result of the entanglement of jealousy over Black economic success with white supremacy and Jim Crow violence.
The destruction of Black Wall Street left a lasting impact on the community. Insurance companies refused to pay claims, calling it a riot instead of an attack, which made it challenging for Black owners to rebuild. The loss of financial documents and generational wealth made it difficult for Black families to recover economically. Additionally, the survivors and their families never received reparations or compensation for their losses, despite efforts from lawyers and the Tulsa Race Riot Commission's recommendations.
The Devastation of Black Wall Street is a stark reminder of the racial violence and white perception of African Americans during that era. It showcases how economic success led to further racial violence and animus, as researched and highlighted by scholars such as Kimberly Jones from the University of Denver. The events of Black Wall Street serve as a symbol of economic hope and success for the Black community, with ongoing efforts to rekindle the entrepreneurial spirit and vibrancy in similar communities.
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Economic impact and challenges
In 1921, Tulsa, Oklahoma's Greenwood District, known as Black Wall Street, was one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States. However, the Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921, also known as the Tulsa Race Riot, had a devastating economic impact on the community.
The economic impact of the Tulsa Race Massacre was severe and far-reaching. The attack resulted in the destruction of thirty-five city blocks, with an estimated 150-300 deaths, 800 injuries, and the displacement of 10,000 people. The property loss was estimated at $31 million in 2017, a likely underestimation. The attack destroyed 190 businesses, dealing a significant blow to the thriving local economy. The loss of businesses and homes disrupted the economic stability of the community, impacting the ability of residents to earn an income and support their families.
Following the massacre, residents of Greenwood faced resistance and challenges in their efforts to rebuild. Despite this, Black professionals, builders, and entrepreneurs persevered and initiated the reconstruction of the district. By 1922, just a year after the massacre, eighty businesses had been reopened, demonstrating the resilience and determination of the community. However, the road to recovery was not easy, and the economic vitality of Black Wall Street was not fully restored.
The lack of access to financial institutions specifically affected the community's ability to rebuild and recover economically. During that time, the area lacked Black-owned banks, making it difficult for local entrepreneurs to obtain loans to support their business growth. While some wealthy Black entrepreneurs had access to non-Black-owned banks, the absence of dedicated financial resources for the Black community hindered their economic progress. This challenge was partially mitigated by wealthy Black individuals like Gurley and Stradford, who provided loans to other Black entrepreneurs in Greenwood, fostering economic growth and supporting their community.
In the decades that followed, Black Wall Street continued to face economic challenges. By the end of the 1950s, more than half of the businesses had closed, and the community experienced a decline following desegregation. With desegregation, Black Americans in Greenwood had more options for investing outside their community, and by 1961, 90% of African-American income in Tulsa was spent outside the Greenwood District. This shift in spending habits further contributed to the economic struggles of the area. Despite these challenges, Black Wall Street remains a symbol of economic hope and success for the Black community, inspiring discussions about economic revitalization in Black communities and the creation of the "next Black Wall Street".
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Reconstruction and compensation
The Reconstruction and Compensation of Black Wall Street
The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre, also known as the Tulsa Race Riot, targeted and destroyed the prosperous Greenwood District, home to a vibrant community of Black-owned businesses known as Black Wall Street. The destruction left 30 city blocks burned to the ground, 150 people dead, and thousands more injured or displaced. The economic damage was substantial, with millions of dollars in property damage and loss of wealth for the African-American community.
In the aftermath of the massacre, there were efforts to rebuild and seek compensation for the losses. Lawyers offered to help African Americans who were arrested during the riots sue for compensation. 193 lawsuits were filed, claiming over $1.8 million in damages. However, insurance companies denied these claims due to a "riot clause" in their policies. The only successful case was that of a White man who received compensation for guns taken from his shop.
Despite the challenges, the survivors of the Tulsa Race Massacre began planning to rebuild even as the Red Cross was providing relief. The rebuilding process was met with resistance from White people outside the community. It took 18 months of restoration and legal battles, but Black Wall Street was never the same again. By 1940, the Black homeownership rate in the Tulsa metro area had surpassed that of White residents, and by 1942, there were 242 Black-owned businesses operating in Greenwood, surpassing the number before the massacre.
In recent years, there have been renewed calls for reparations and compensation for the descendants of those affected by the Tulsa Race Massacre. A 2001 report from the State of Oklahoma and a more recent report from the Brookings Institution have advocated for reparations, with the latter proposing a $200 million program to compensate for the loss of Black wealth. Lawsuits have been filed against the city of Tulsa, the state of Oklahoma, and other organizations, demanding compensation and equitable measures to address the ongoing inequities in the Greenwood community.
The destruction of Black Wall Street and the lack of compensation for its survivors and descendants highlight the systemic racism and injustice endured by the African-American community in the United States. While there have been efforts to rebuild and seek reparations, the road to healing and justice remains ongoing.
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Other Black Wall Streets
The Greenwood District in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was known as Black Wall Street. It was one of the most prosperous African-American communities in the United States in the early 20th century. However, on May 31, 1921, racial violence erupted, sparked by a sensationalized newspaper report of an attempted rape of a white woman by a black man. This resulted in the destruction of the Greenwood area, with an estimated 150-300 deaths and significant economic loss. Despite efforts to rebuild, the community never fully recovered.
While Tulsa's Black Wall Street is well-known, there were several other Black Wall Streets across the United States:
Richmond, Virginia
During the early 20th century, Richmond's Jackson Ward was a thriving business and entertainment district, known as the "Harlem of the South." It was home to many black-owned banks, insurance companies, and investment groups. Jackson Ward was also a centre for black culture, hosting renowned artists such as Ella Fitzgerald and Duke Ellington. However, the area declined due to a combination of redlining, slum clearance, and the development of highways that bypassed the neighbourhood.
Durham, North Carolina
Durham, known as the "Capital of the Black Middle Class," was home to a thriving black community called Hayti. Praised by W.E.B. Du Bois, Hayti was a centre of black economic progress, with dozens of black-owned businesses, including a mattress manufacturer, a cigar factory, and a bank. North Carolina Mutual, a prominent black-owned insurance company, played a crucial role in financing black enterprises throughout the region.
Birmingham, Alabama
Birmingham's Black Business District, centred on Fourth Avenue and Seventeenth Street, was a hub of black economic activity, with 60% of the city's black-owned businesses located there during the civil rights era. The area was also a focal point for civil rights struggles, with the 16th Street Baptist Church, bombed by Klansmen, standing as a testament to the community's resilience.
Other Notable Black Wall Streets
- Bronzeville in Chicago
- Sweet Auburn in Atlanta
- West Ninth Street in Little Rock, Arkansas
- Farish Street in Jackson, Mississippi
These communities, like Tulsa's Greenwood District, showcase the economic empowerment and resilience of African Americans in the face of racial discrimination and segregation. They serve as a reminder of the past achievements and ongoing struggles of Black communities across the United States.
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Frequently asked questions
Zero. Black Wall Street was a thriving, affluent African-American community in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in the early 20th century. It was not a source of pollution but a symbol of economic hope and success for the Black community in the United States.
On May 31 and June 1, 1921, a white mob attacked and burned down the Greenwood District, also known as Black Wall Street. This event, known as the Tulsa Race Massacre, resulted in the destruction of homes and businesses and the deaths of an estimated 150-300 people.
The Tulsa Race Massacre was sparked by a racially inflammatory report in the Tulsa Tribune, which claimed that a black man, Dick Rowland, had attempted to rape a white woman, Sarah Page. This incident led to racial violence, with white mobs invading the Greenwood District and destroying the prosperous Black community.
The Tulsa Race Massacre had a devastating impact on the Black community in Tulsa. In addition to the loss of life, the massacre destroyed a thriving local economy, leaving many people homeless and struggling economically. Despite efforts to rebuild, the community never fully recovered, and the area continues to face economic challenges today.
