Air Pollution: A Historical Perspective On Our Toxic Air

Air pollution has been a problem since humans started burning materials for fuel, first wood and biomass, and then fossil fuels. While the Industrial Revolution marked a significant increase in air pollution, particularly in Europe and the United States, there is evidence that air pollution has existed since the days of Ancient Rome, and even as far back as 400 BCE. In the 18th century, scientists proved the existence of certain gases in the air, and governments began to address the issue of air quality, with England's Smoke Abatement Act of 1273 aiming to curb the effects of localized smoke pollution. Despite these early efforts, air pollution remains a pressing environmental issue, with modern societies still relying on polluting activities and energy sources.

Ancient Rome and Greenland's ice samples

Air pollution has existed in some form for thousands of years. While the Industrial Revolution is often blamed for introducing air pollution to the world, this issue has existed since ancient times.

Ancient Rome

The Roman Empire lit so many fires that the resulting air pollution cooled the climate in Europe. People burned fuel like wood to heat their homes, releasing greenhouse gases and soot. They also cut down forests to grow crops, and the residents of ancient Rome complained about their city's noxious smoke cloud 2,000 years ago. The ancient Roman justice system even got involved, with the jurist Aristo declaring that a cheese shop could not discharge smoke into the buildings above it.

Greenland Ice Samples

The Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS) is like a time capsule that offers insights into the recent history of Earth's atmosphere. Scientists who analysed core samples from the ice found they contained a record of chemical shifts in the air, including how human efforts to rein in air pollution have helped improve the environment. For example, researchers discovered a link between air acidity and how nitrogen is stored in layers of snow, noting a clear distinction in nitrogen levels before and after the impact of the US Clean Air Act of 1970.

Additionally, ice samples from Greenland have revealed that humans began emitting greenhouse gases at least 2,000 years ago. The gas methane, which is now considered a greenhouse gas, was found in ice samples spanning 2,100 years. While methane naturally occurs in the atmosphere in low concentrations, it is now implicated in climate change due to emissions from various human activities.

Furthermore, lead pollution recorded in Greenland ice indicates European emissions during ancient times. Measurements have been linked to events such as plagues, wars, and imperial expansion during antiquity, including the Roman Republican and Imperial periods. These studies provide insights into the performance of ancient economies and the impact of ancient lead-silver mining and smelting on the environment.

Industrial Revolution

Air pollution has existed since humans started burning materials for fuel, first with wood and biomass, and then with fossil fuels. While the issue of air pollution has been identified and studied throughout history, the Industrial Revolution, which took place between 1820 and 1840, significantly exacerbated air quality issues. This period marked a transition to new manufacturing processes, including the rise of the mechanised factory system, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and increased use of steam and water power. These developments led to a greater demand for natural resources such as coal and iron, contributing to widespread pollution in the form of factory smoke.

The Industrial Revolution had a profound impact on the environment, particularly in developing urban areas. The burning of coal and the release of pollutants from factories led to a decline in air quality, with smoke and particulate matter filling the air. During this time, Britain experienced widespread pollution, and the Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act of 1821 was enacted to address the damages caused by air pollution. Landowners and industrial capitalists supported the act as they recognised the negative impact of pollution on property.

The Industrial Revolution also spurred the development of early government regulations and laws related to air quality. England's Smoke Abatement Act of 1273, for example, aimed to curb the effects of localised smoke pollution by prohibiting the burning of soft coal. Additionally, in 1876, the UK established the Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours to investigate the growing problem of industrial air pollution. These efforts reflected a growing awareness of the detrimental effects of air pollution on both the environment and public health.

The consequences of the Industrial Revolution extended beyond Britain. Great Britain, other European countries, and the United States underwent similar transitions during this period, facing their own challenges with air pollution. The increased use of coal and other natural resources had far-reaching environmental impacts, contributing to the phenomenon of acid rain and the loss of biodiversity, particularly in aquatic ecosystems.

While the Industrial Revolution marked a significant period of transition and progress, it also highlighted the need to address the negative externalities of industrialisation. The recognition of air pollution as a pressing issue led to the development of regulations and the search for solutions to mitigate its effects. However, the legacy of the Industrial Revolution continues to shape the modern world, as societies still grapple with the environmental and economic burdens of air pollution.

20th-century disasters and regulation

Air pollution has existed since humans started burning materials for fuel, initially wood and biomass, and later fossil fuels. The Industrial Revolution, which began in the early 19th century, saw the increased mechanisation of factories, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and the greater use of steam and water power. This shift led to a greater need for natural resources, including coal and iron, and industrialisation has had massive consequences for the environment, particularly air quality in developing urban areas.

In the 20th century, air pollution was responsible for several environmental disasters. In 1948, 22 people died and 5,190 were made ill by the Donora smog incident in Pennsylvania. The same year, 600 people died in London in a "killer fog". In 1952, the worst of the London "killer fogs" killed 4,000 people, bringing the city to a standstill. In 1953, between 170 and 260 people died in a similar smog incident in New York.

The 1950s and 1960s saw the beginning of a shift towards greater regulation of air pollution. In 1952, Oregon passed the first state-level air pollution law in the US, and Los Angeles took measures to control photochemical smog in the 1940s. In 1955, the US Congress passed the Air Pollution Control Act, a forerunner of the Clean Air Act of 1963 and subsequent legislation.

The Clean Air Act of 1970 marked a major shift in the US federal government's role in air pollution control, authorising the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit emissions from both stationary and mobile sources. Four major regulatory programs affecting stationary sources were initiated: the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), State Implementation Plans (SIPs), New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), and National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs).

In 1979, many countries stepped up their efforts to reduce emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxide, instituting the international framework of the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP).

In 1990, further major amendments were made to the Clean Air Act, increasing the authority and responsibility of the federal government. New regulatory programs were authorised for control of acid deposition (acid rain) and for the issuance of stationary source operating permits.

Despite these efforts, air pollution remains a pressing environmental issue in the contemporary world, with modern societies still relying on polluting activities and energy sources.

Particulate matter and health

Air pollution has existed since humans started burning materials for fuel, first wood and biomass, and then fossil fuels. The Industrial Revolution, which began between 1820 and 1840, saw the rise of the mechanised factory system, chemical manufacturing, iron production, and an increase in the use of steam and water power, all of which led to a greater need for natural resources and a consequent impact on air quality.

Particulate matter, also known as particle pollution or soot, refers to the mix of tiny solid and liquid particles in the air we breathe. These particles are so small that they are often invisible, but when their levels are high, they create a noticeable haze. The most commonly used unit in air quality measurements is PM2.5, referring to particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers, which is said to pose the greatest risk to human health.

The size of these particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health issues. Smaller particles, less than 10 micrometers in diameter, can get deep into the lungs and may even enter the bloodstream. Exposure to such particles can affect both the lungs and the heart, causing short-term health effects such as eye, nose, throat, and lung irritation, coughing, sneezing, and shortness of breath. Long-term exposure to fine particles has been linked to increased mortality from heart disease, as well as increased rates of chronic bronchitis, reduced lung function, and lung cancer. People with pre-existing heart and lung conditions, pregnant women, children, older adults, and minority populations are more likely to be affected by particle pollution exposure due to increased sensitivity or higher exposure.

Outdoor particle pollution can come from sources such as vehicle exhaust, burning wood, wildfires, agricultural fires, industrial sites, power plants, and the burning of fossil fuels in factories and diesel- and gasoline-powered motor vehicles. Indoor sources include tobacco smoke, frying or broiling food, burning candles or oil lamps, fireplaces, and fuel-burning space heaters.

To protect oneself from the harmful effects of particle pollution, it is important to limit exposure to smoke and spend more time indoors, especially for those in sensitive groups. Monitoring air quality and taking appropriate measures, such as wearing well-fitting face masks when outdoors, can also help mitigate the health risks associated with particulate matter.

Global progress and challenges

Air pollution has been a problem since humans started burning materials for fuel, first wood and biomass, and then fossil fuels. The issue of air pollution has existed since the days of ancient Rome and perhaps even earlier, with written works discussing air pollution dating as far back as 400 BCE, including Hippocrates' "On Airs, Waters and Places". Despite this early awareness, the widespread recognition of air pollution problems and attempts at prevention or control did not begin until much later.

The Industrial Revolution, which began around the 1820s, marked a significant turning point in the history of air pollution. The transition to new manufacturing processes, including the increased use of coal and iron, had a profound impact on air quality, particularly in developing urban areas. This led to growing concerns about air pollution, with the UK establishing the Royal Commission on Noxious Vapours in 1876 to address the issue.

In the 20th century, there were significant advances in the identification, regulation, and control of air pollution. The 1952 Great Smog of London, which resulted in thousands of deaths, served as a catalyst for the UK's first Clean Air Act in 1956. The act aimed to address pollution and smog caused by coal burning. Similar legislation was passed in the United States in 1970, with the primary goal of establishing national air quality standards.

While there has been progress in reducing air pollution in some regions, it remains a pressing global issue. Asia has emerged as the largest source of SO2 and NOx emissions, with China contributing significantly to overall emissions in the continent. However, in 2018, China demonstrated that it was possible to reduce these emissions, setting a positive example for other countries.

The effects of air pollution on human health are well-documented, with millions of people dying prematurely each year due to chronic exposure. Particulate matter, formed by the breakdown of larger pollutants, poses a significant risk to human health, particularly when particles are small enough to enter the lungs, airways, and blood. The worst air quality is currently found in the Global South, especially in developing countries in Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia.

To address the challenge of air pollution effectively, a comprehensive approach is necessary. This includes closing polluting power plants, reducing dependence on fossil fuels, and transitioning to renewable energy sources. Smart technology has emerged as a promising tool in the fight against pollution, aiding in the monitoring and management of air quality. While history shows that countries have taken action to stop the spread of certain air pollutants, more decisive measures are needed to prevent irreversible damage to our planet.

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