Air Pollution: A Harmful, Invisible Threat

Air pollution is a major threat to global health and prosperity, with nine out of ten people now breathing polluted air. It is caused by the combustion of fossil fuels, household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities, and forest fires, among other sources. The health effects of air pollution are wide-ranging and severe, including respiratory and other diseases, lung damage, osteoporosis, and even premature death. Certain groups are more vulnerable to the harmful effects of air pollution, including children, people with low incomes, and people of colour.

Air pollution and health

Air pollution is a serious global health hazard that affects everyone. It is estimated to cause around 7 million premature deaths worldwide each year, with low- and middle-income countries suffering the highest exposures. Outdoor air pollution in cities and rural areas, caused by the combustion of fossil fuels, results in particulate matter that leads to strokes, heart diseases, lung cancer, and acute and chronic respiratory diseases. Indoor air pollution, caused by the use of solid fuels and kerosene in open fires and inefficient stoves, is responsible for approximately 3.2 million premature deaths annually, predominantly in low- and middle-income countries. Women and children, who typically spend more time indoors, are at a higher risk of suffering the adverse health effects of indoor air pollution.

Air pollution is linked to an increased risk of various diseases and adverse health outcomes. It can cause or worsen lung and heart diseases, contribute to coughing or itchy eyes, trigger asthma attacks, and lead to hospitalizations or premature death. Particle pollution, consisting of tiny bits of solids and liquids in the air, poses a significant threat to public health. It can increase the risk of premature births, cause brain shrinkage, and harm brain development in adolescents. Additionally, air pollution is associated with osteoporosis, particularly in postmenopausal women, and can lead to bone damage.

Certain groups are more vulnerable to the harmful effects of air pollution. People with lower incomes or those living in lower-income areas are at increased risk. This is due to their proximity to sources of pollution and limited resources for relocation or access to quality healthcare. Children are also more susceptible to harm from air pollution and are more likely to be exposed. Higher levels of air pollution increase short-term respiratory infections, leading to more school absences. Furthermore, air pollution disproportionately affects people of colour and minority populations, with systemic racism being a contributing factor to this disparity.

The sources of air pollution are diverse and context-specific. Outdoor pollution arises from residential energy use, vehicles, power generation, agriculture, waste incineration, and industry. Indoor air pollution is caused by household combustion devices, motor vehicles, industrial facilities, and forest fires. Tobacco smoke, vehicle exhaust, and wood smoke are common sources of harmful airborne particles that individuals should avoid when possible.

Addressing air pollution is crucial for protecting public health and reducing the burden of diseases associated with it. Sustainable land use, cleaner household energy and transport, energy-efficient housing, improved municipal waste management, and stricter vehicle emissions standards are some measures that can effectively reduce air pollution and mitigate its health impacts.

Air pollution and children

Air pollution is a major environmental health hazard that affects everyone. However, children are especially vulnerable to its harmful effects for several reasons. Firstly, children's bodies, organs, and immune systems are still developing, making them more susceptible to infections and the harmful effects of pollutants. Their lungs are smaller and more susceptible to damage, and they breathe faster and inhale more air relative to their body weight, often through the mouth, which increases their exposure to pollutants.

Children also tend to spend more time indoors, where they are exposed to household air pollution from cooking fires, inefficient stoves, and open fires fuelled by wood, charcoal, or coal. This is particularly true in low- and middle-income countries, where women and children bear the brunt of the impact. Additionally, children play and spend more time outdoors, increasing their exposure to outdoor air pollution on days with poor air quality.

The effects of air pollution on children can be immediate and long-lasting, and in some cases, irreversible. It is linked to respiratory conditions such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and asthma, and can cause respiratory infections, reduced lung function, allergies, and even chronic diseases later in life. Air pollution is also associated with low birth weight, miscarriages, and premature births, as mothers can pass on the harmful chemicals they inhale to their babies during pregnancy and breastfeeding.

To reduce the impact of air pollution on children, it is crucial to monitor air quality and adjust behaviours accordingly. This includes limiting time spent in areas with high pollution, such as near busy roads or industrial areas, and reducing children's exposure during school commutes and outdoor activities on poor air quality days. Improving air quality around schools and other child-centric settings is essential, as children have little power to influence policies themselves.

Additionally, promoting healthy diets, exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months, and ensuring children are up to date with immunisations can help reduce the overall impact of air pollution on their health.

Air pollution and income

Air pollution is a major threat to global health and prosperity. It is responsible for more than 6.5 million deaths each year globally, a number that has increased over the past two decades. Nine out of ten people now breathe polluted air, and people with lower incomes are disproportionately affected.

People with lower incomes are more vulnerable to the adverse health impacts of air pollution. This is due to a variety of factors, including higher levels of air pollution exposure, limited access to healthcare and healthy food options, poorer job opportunities, dirtier workplaces, and higher traffic exposure. Additionally, low-income households may rely on fuels such as wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal, and dung for cooking, heating, and lighting, which contribute to indoor air pollution.

Several studies have found that low-income and deprived neighborhoods have higher concentrations of harmful particulate matter (PM) compared to higher-income areas. For example, studies in New Zealand, Ghana, and Hong Kong found that lower-income communities had higher exposures to PM10 and PM2.5. Similarly, a European-wide analysis showed that middle-income populations in Eastern Europe had lower PM10 concentrations than both higher and lower-income groups, while in Western Europe, middle-income groups had higher PM10 concentrations.

The health risks of household air pollution are strongly correlated with poverty. Lower-income households may lack the resources to obtain cleaner fuels and devices, relying instead on traditional inefficient cooking stoves and fuel sources that contribute to indoor air pollution. Women and children in these households are particularly vulnerable as they tend to spend more time indoors and are exposed to higher rates of particulate matter and other pollutants emitted by stoves and open fires.

Furthermore, income disparities exist within urban areas as well. In the United States, non-Hispanic blacks, the unemployed, and those with low incomes or low education levels are more likely to live in areas with higher exposures to particle pollution. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, cities like Leeds and London show higher concentrations of PM10 and NO2 as socioeconomic status (SES) declines. These disparities in air pollution exposure can have significant health impacts on vulnerable populations.

Air pollution and race

Air pollution is a familiar environmental health hazard, and it is a major threat to global health. Nine out of ten people now breathe polluted air, which kills 7 million people annually. While air pollution affects everyone, certain groups are harmed more than others.

People of different races and ethnicities, education levels, locations, and socioeconomic situations tend to be exposed to different degrees of air pollution. Research indicates there are racial or ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in air pollution emissions. People with annual incomes above $70,000 generally experience greater declines in industry, energy, transportation, residential, and commercial-related emissions than people with lower incomes.

Several studies have found that Hispanics, Asians, and especially Blacks, have a higher risk of premature death from particle pollution than whites. This finding is independent of income level. For example, higher-income Blacks who have higher incomes than many whites still face a greater risk than those whites. This suggests that the impact of other factors, such as chronic stress as a result of discrimination, may be playing a role.

African Americans are also more likely to live in areas with greater exposure to air pollution due to decades of residential segregation. They also face more susceptibility to the adverse health effects of air pollution because of societal disadvantages, such as lack of access to housing and healthcare. A 2008 study of Washington, DC, found that areas with higher Medicaid enrollment and higher air pollution had worsened asthma. A 2016 study of New Jersey residents found that the risk of dying early from long-term exposure to particle pollution was higher in communities with larger African American populations, lower home values, and lower median income.

Overall, racial disparities in exposure to air pollution are a serious public health issue, and regulations and interventions are needed to effectively address environmental injustice for people of color.

Air pollution and climate change

Air pollution is a major threat to global health and prosperity. It is responsible for over 6.5 million deaths each year globally, with nine out of ten people now breathing polluted air. In 2022, 442,000 children under the age of five died prematurely from breathing polluted air. Air pollution also has disastrous effects on children before they are born, with evidence suggesting that exposure in the womb leads to reduced birth weight.

There are two main types of air pollution: ambient air pollution (outdoor pollution) and household air pollution (indoor pollution). Ambient air pollution is a major environmental health problem that affects people in low-, middle-, and high-income countries due to the combustion of fossil fuels. Sources of outdoor air pollution are also sources of high CO2 emissions, with the use of fossil fuels for power generation, industry, and transport being major sources of both particulate matter and CO2. Black carbon, a component of fine particulate matter, is one of the largest contributors to global warming after CO2. It warms the Earth's atmosphere by absorbing sunlight, accelerating the melting of snow and ice.

Household air pollution is mainly caused by the use of solid fuels (such as wood, crop waste, charcoal, coal, and dung) and kerosene in open fires and inefficient stoves. This type of pollution primarily affects women and children, who tend to spend more time indoors. Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.2 million premature deaths each year, mostly in low- and middle-income countries.

Climate change can also affect air quality. Extreme weather events, such as flooding and storms, can allow water or moisture to enter buildings, creating damp indoor conditions that foster the growth of harmful pollutants such as mould and bacteria. Warmer temperatures associated with climate change can increase ground-level ozone, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change by trapping heat in the atmosphere. Regulatory initiatives, partnership programs, and individual actions can help reduce air pollutants that harm human health and contribute to climate change.

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