China's Pollution Crisis: A Historical Overview

China's rapid population increase, economic growth, and expansion of farmland over millennia have contributed to its current status as the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases. The burning of fossil fuels, industrial waste, and agricultural pollution have led to severe air, land, and water pollution, threatening the health of Chinese citizens and the environment. China's recent efforts to combat pollution through financing and government initiatives have shown progress, but the balance between economic development and environmental sustainability remains a challenge.

Population growth and industrialisation

China's population has grown immensely since the 1980s, and this has resulted in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration believes this to be a threat to the environment, food safety, and sustainable agriculture. China's cultivated land has been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate more land, and solid waste has covered or destroyed even more. The affected area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivable land. An estimated 6 million tonnes of food grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of billions. The presence of heavy metals in the soil has adverse health effects on human metabolism.

China's rapid population increase and rapid economic growth, along with lax environmental oversight, have resulted in increased water demand and pollution. China's water resources are affected by both severe water shortages and severe water pollution. The country relies on coal for three-quarters of its energy needs, and coal consumption is expected to continue to rise as the economy expands. Coal is the source of air pollution that is most hazardous for the majority of Chinese who live in rural areas and cook and heat their homes with coal stoves. After three winter days in such a home, a person's nose runs grey, eyes turn red, and a cough develops.

The immense urban growth of Chinese cities has substantially increased the need for consumer goods, vehicles, and energy. This, in turn, increases the burning of fossil fuels, resulting in smog. Exposure to smog poses a threat to the health of Chinese citizens. A 2012 study showed that fine particles in the air, which cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, were one of the key pollutants that accounted for a large fraction of damage to the health of Chinese citizens.

The agrarian empires of China's past encouraged the expansion of taxable farmland and the growth of the taxpaying population for over two millennia. Their success helped create China's environmental crisis. They conquered more and more land and encouraged the spread of farmers, replacing diverse ecosystems with simplified agrarian ones.

Coal and fossil fuel usage

China's reliance on coal and fossil fuels is a significant contributor to the country's pollution problem. China is the world's largest consumer and producer of coal, with coal consumption and production accounting for more than half of the world's total in 2021. This heavy reliance on coal has resulted in severe air pollution, with fine particles in the air causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases among Chinese citizens.

In rural areas, household stoves burning coal are a major source of air pollution. The coal, often in the form of round briquettes, releases hazardous particles into the air, leading to health issues such as runny noses, red eyes, and coughing. Additionally, coal-fired power stations contribute significantly to global CO2 emissions, with China's coal combustion accounting for more than 20% of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels annually over the past decade.

China's economic growth and increasing energy demands have driven the continued use of coal. Despite government pledges to "strictly control" coal consumption, the construction of new coal-fired power plants reached a 10-year high in 2024. This expansion of coal-power capacity solidifies coal's place as a major source of electricity in China. However, there are concerns about the environmental impact of this continued reliance on coal, as it poses a ""challenge"" to China's high-level climate commitments.

The Chinese government has set ambitious goals for reducing coal consumption and transitioning to non-fossil fuel energy sources. President Xi Jinping pledged to reach carbon neutrality by 2060, sending a strong message about coal's long-term future in the country. While there is a growing amount of low-carbon electricity in China's energy mix, the continued construction of coal-power projects and policies prioritizing coal power pose challenges to achieving these climate goals.

The "traditional" coal chemical industry in China has been converting coal into chemical products and liquid fuels for decades. More recently, a "modern" coal chemical industry has emerged, utilizing advanced technologies and processes to produce petrochemical goods and plastics. This sector consumes a significant amount of coal, contributing to China's overall coal consumption and the associated environmental impact.

Water shortages and pollution

China is facing a water crisis, with water shortages and pollution both playing a role. China is the world's biggest water user, accounting for 13% of global freshwater consumption. This is due to a large population, industrial manufacturing, household plumbing, agriculture and livestock, and energy production. However, China is becoming increasingly urbanized and economically developed, and clean water is becoming scarcer.

Water shortages plague over half of China's cities. The water table in Shenyang, for example, is dropping at a rate of three to four and a half feet per year. Hebei Province, next to Beijing, sees its deep aquifer fall by three meters every year. The Yellow River, northern China's main river, has dried up every year since 1985. This is due to overuse, with water being taken from it for irrigation. Hebei has lost 969 of its 1,052 lakes.

China's water shortages are also due to pollution. It is estimated that 70% of China's rivers and lakes are contaminated, and half of its cities have significantly polluted groundwater. The Yangtze River has been called "cancerous" by experts, and the Yellow River is unfit for swimming. In 2006, Chongqing's tap water contained 80 out of 101 banned pollutants. In 2015, 3.78 billion cubic meters of untreated wastewater was discharged across China, including 1.98 million cubic meters in Beijing alone. This is due to lax environmental oversight, rapid population increase, and rapid economic growth.

The agricultural sector is a significant source of pollution. Chinese farms generate more pollution than factories, according to a government survey. Pesticides and fertilizer residues are often left untreated in landfills due to a lack of waste management infrastructure. Industrial wastewater discharge, untreated sewage, and agricultural runoff have also contaminated water sources.

The Chinese government has begun to address the water pollution problem by issuing stricter regulations on pollutants and spending billions of dollars on water projects. However, water quality remains poor, and water shortages and pollution continue to be a critical issue for China.

Agricultural sector waste

China's agricultural sector has been a significant contributor to the country's pollution problem. A government survey revealed that Chinese farms generate more pollution than factories. This pollution comes in various forms, with pesticides and fertilizer residues being major contributors. China is the world's largest user of pesticides, with an application area 2.5 times the global average. These pesticides contain toxins such as organophosphorus, organochlorines, and heavy metals, which can contaminate water bodies and pose risks to human health. Similarly, the excessive use of chemical fertilizers in China has led to the pollution of surface and groundwater.

Agricultural plastic waste is another pressing issue. Plastic products like bags, mulch film, and packaging materials are often left untreated in landfills due to inadequate waste management infrastructure. This phenomenon, known as "white pollution," has been a growing concern in China and South Asia. The agricultural sector's reliance on plastic contributes significantly to this problem.

The environmental impact of food loss and waste (FLW) in China is also significant. FLW has serious consequences for the land, water, and carbon footprints, with foods of animal products, cereals, vegetables, and fruits being the most affected at various stages, including agricultural production, post-harvest handling, and consumption. The average national FLW land footprint in China is estimated to be 4152.36 × 10^9 gm^2, impacting the ecological niches of approximately 276.82 million people.

Furthermore, the encouragement of farmland expansion and the growth of the tax-paying population by agrarian empires over millennia have contributed to China's environmental crisis. This shift from diverse ecosystems to simplified agrarian ones has had lasting effects on the country's natural landscape.

The pollution from the agricultural sector in China has far-reaching consequences, affecting not only the environment but also public health and food safety. With the country's commitment to reducing carbon emissions and achieving carbon neutrality, addressing agricultural sector waste is crucial for China's sustainable future.

Climate change and ozone pollution

China's rapid population growth and economic development have had a significant impact on the environment, leading to increased pollution and climate change concerns.

China's reliance on fossil fuels, particularly coal, has contributed significantly to climate change and ozone pollution. Coal-fired power plants emit large amounts of carbon dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas, as well as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which are precursors to ground-level ozone, a major component of smog. The burning of coal in households for cooking and heating, especially in rural areas, exacerbates air pollution and its associated health risks. China's urban growth has also increased the demand for vehicles, contributing to the rise in fossil fuel consumption and smog formation.

The agricultural sector, while often overlooked, plays a significant role in China's pollution crisis. Farms generate more pollution than factories, according to a government survey. Pesticides, fertilizer residues, and plastic waste from agricultural activities contaminate soil and water bodies, leading to increased soil pollution and water shortages. The expansion of farmland encouraged by historical political regimes, such as the Han Empire, contributed to the simplification of diverse ecosystems into agrarian ones, further intensifying the environmental crisis.

China's pollution challenges are not limited to its land but also impact neighbouring countries. Wind patterns carry dust storms originating from the deserts of northern China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan eastward, affecting Korea and Japan. These dust storms are often laden with toxic pollutants, including heavy metals, carcinogens, and harmful particles that pose health risks to those exposed.

China has taken some steps to address its pollution issues, such as implementing a ban on plastic bags, which has shown some positive results. However, the country still faces significant challenges in mitigating the environmental and health impacts of pollution, particularly in highly industrialised areas like Shenyang, which has been identified as one of the most polluted cities in the world.

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