Beijing's Battle Against Smog: Strategies And Successes

Beijing has made significant progress in addressing its air pollution crisis in recent years. The city has implemented a range of comprehensive measures to tackle the issue, including a focus on energy infrastructure optimisation, coal-fired pollution control, and vehicle emission controls. Beijing's success in improving air quality is attributed to its dynamic strategies, coordination with surrounding regions, and substantial investments of time, resources, and political will. While challenges remain, Beijing's efforts offer valuable insights for other cities facing similar issues.

Beijing's Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017

The plan was a set of new measures to limit industrial and traffic pollution, with over 30 responsible bodies involved, including local districts, the Beijing Development and Reform Commission (BDRC), Beijing Municipal Commission of Transport (BMCT), Beijing Transport Management Bureau (BTMB), Beijing Environment Protection Bureau (BEPB), and other related authorities. The main targets of the plan were split into 84 specific tasks.

The Clean Air Action Plan built upon previous measures that had been implemented since 1998, when air pollution in Beijing was dominated by coal combustion and motor vehicles. By 2013, levels of some pollutants, like carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, had met national standards. However, Beijing still faced challenges in reducing air pollution, and the 2013-2017 plan introduced more systematic and intensive measures.

The strategies employed by the Beijing government included:

• Reducing iron and steel-making capacity in the industry
• Controlling vehicle emissions by restricting the number of cars on the road on any given day through quotas on new license plates
• Improving enforcement of emissions standards, including suspending the production of car models that did not meet fuel economy standards
• Increasing renewable energy generation
• Prohibiting new coal-fired plants in target regions and requiring existing coal plants to reduce emissions or switch to natural gas
• Building pollution reduction into government officials' incentives

Reducing coal-fired pollution

Beijing's air pollution was largely attributed to coal-fired power plants and boilers, which were a significant source of harmful emissions. To address this issue, the city implemented a range of measures to reduce coal-fired pollution and improve air quality.

One key strategy was to phase out coal-fired power plants and boilers and transition to cleaner energy sources. Beijing shut down coal-fired power plants and industrial sites, retrofitted and transitioned power plants, and replaced coal-fired boilers with gas-fired or electric alternatives. This was facilitated by providing financial incentives for industries and citizens to switch from coal to natural gas for residential heating. The city also provided subsidies to encourage the adoption of cleaner energy sources.

Another important initiative was the implementation of stringent air pollution control policies, such as the Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017, which focused on controlling PM2.5 pollution and included stricter limits on coal-fired emissions. The city also established a sophisticated air quality monitoring system, with over 1000 sensors distributed across Beijing, to precisely identify areas and times with high emissions. This monitoring network played a crucial role in guiding the city's clean air actions and policy formulation.

In addition to these measures, Beijing also focused on industrial restructuring and clean energy generation. The city closed high-pollution enterprises and moved factories out of the Beijing prefecture area. Collaborative planning and information sharing with surrounding regions, such as the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, further contributed to the success of Beijing's air pollution control efforts.

As a result of these comprehensive initiatives, Beijing has made remarkable strides in improving its air quality. Levels of pollutants, including fine particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds, have significantly decreased. The residential coal ban alone is estimated to have averted around a thousand premature deaths annually.

Vehicle emission controls

Beijing has implemented a series of comprehensive air pollution control programs to combat its pollution crisis, with multi-faceted efforts targeting different sources of pollution. Vehicle emissions are a significant contributor to urban air pollution in China, and Beijing has been no exception. To address this, Beijing has adopted various vehicle emission control strategies and policies since the mid-1990s, which can be classified into seven categories:

• Emission control on new vehicles: Beijing has implemented a series of European emission standards for new light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles, such as the Euro 1 and Euro 2 emission standards.
• Emission control on in-use vehicles: This includes enhancing the annual inspection and maintenance (I/M) program and scrapping high-emitting vehicles.
• Fuel quality improvements: Beijing has improved fuel quality by introducing unleaded gasoline and low-sulfur fuel.
• Alternative-fuel and advanced vehicles: Promoting the use of alternative fuels and advanced vehicles, such as electric or hybrid cars.
• Economic policies: This includes fiscal incentives, such as vehicle emission taxes or fees, and carbon markets and environmental taxes.
• Public transport: Investing in and promoting public transportation to reduce the number of private vehicles on the road.
• Temporal traffic control measures: Implementing temporary transportation control measures during major events, such as the Beijing Olympic Games, to reduce vehicle emissions.

These strategies have proven successful, with Beijing achieving a significant reduction in vehicle emissions and an improvement in overall air quality. The city's efforts to control vehicle emissions are considered a pioneer in China, similar to the role California plays in the United States.

Public health initiatives

Beijing's air quality improvements are a result of comprehensive public health initiatives. In the 1990s, Beijing suffered from severe air pollution due to rapid economic and social development, with local residents expressing concerns about its health impact. In response, the Beijing municipal government published China's first local government declaration on air pollution control in 1998, signalling a commitment to addressing the issue.

From 1998 to 2011, the Beijing government established a robust legislative and enforcement framework, implementing hundreds of concrete measures. This included a focus on energy infrastructure optimisation, coal-fired pollution control, and vehicle emission controls. By 2013, levels of some pollutants, such as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, had met national standards.

In 2012, frequent heavy PM2.5 pollution episodes sparked serious health concerns, prompting Beijing to take further action. The Beijing Clean Air Action Plan 2013-2017 was unveiled, focusing on controlling PM2.5 pollution to protect public health. Stricter PM2.5 limits were imposed, a residential coal ban was implemented, and a sophisticated air quality monitoring system was established. Financial investment in air pollution control increased significantly during this period, reflecting the government's commitment to improving air quality.

The health sector has played a crucial role in driving Beijing's clean air initiatives. In 2007, the Beijing government consulted with public health researchers to understand the health impact of air pollution. This research found a strong link between NOx emissions and respiratory health, leading to strengthened control of vehicle emissions, including low emission zones and restrictions on high-emission vehicles.

While Beijing's air quality has improved significantly, it still falls below health standards, and heavy pollution episodes occur during autumn and winter. However, the city's success in reducing air pollution has led to longer life expectancy for residents and serves as a model for other cities facing similar challenges.

Urban rail expansion

Beijing has implemented a series of comprehensive air pollution control programs to address its pollution crisis. One of the key strategies has been the expansion of its urban rail network, which has helped reduce traffic congestion and lower carbon emissions.

Beijing's determination to champion urban rail expansion has been a critical aspect of its efforts to improve air quality. The city has invested heavily in building and expanding its subway system, with a US$30 billion (200 billion Chinese Yuan) investment in new subway lines. This has resulted in a significant increase in the number of stations, growing from 39 stations in 2002 to over 300 stations by 2014. This rapid expansion has made Beijing unique in the speed of its subway development.

The expansion of the urban rail network has had a significant impact on reducing traffic congestion. With road transport accounting for approximately 80% of emissions in Beijing, the shift towards low-emission and high-energy-efficient rail transit has played a vital role in reducing pollutant emissions. The optimization of transport modes, including the expansion of rail infrastructure, has led to a decline in carbon emissions from the public transport system between 2015 and 2018.

The benefits of urban rail expansion go beyond environmental gains. The improved accessibility provided by the expanded subway system is believed to have resulted in substantial economic benefits. Studies have estimated that the completion of the 2015 Plan, which aimed to bring all residents within walking distance of a subway station, could save between US$0.45 billion and US$2.37 billion in the first year by reducing auto usage and associated costs.

While Beijing's urban rail expansion has been successful, challenges remain. High passenger volumes during peak hours continue to strain the transport system, and debates persist regarding the quantification of carbon emissions during the operational phase of urban rail transit. Nonetheless, Beijing's commitment to sustainable mobility and the reduction of air pollution through urban rail expansion has been a critical aspect of its air quality improvement efforts.

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