Air Pollution's Historical Roots In China

China's air pollution issues are largely attributed to its rapid industrialization and urbanization, which have resulted in increased energy consumption and fossil fuel reliance. The burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, has led to severe air pollution, causing hundreds of thousands of premature deaths annually and contributing to respiratory illnesses. The problem became more evident during the 1970s when black smoke from industrial stacks became a characteristic feature of Chinese cities. Since then, air pollution has worsened due to various factors, including vehicle emissions and population growth, with only 1% of China's urban population currently breathing air considered safe by European Union standards.

Industrialisation and economic growth

China's economic growth has been fuelled by fossil fuels, which has resulted in severe air pollution. The country's rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to a significant increase in energy consumption, contributing to the degradation of air quality in its cities. China's industrial cities were characterized by black smoke billowing from stacks in the 1970s, and in the 1980s, southern cities experienced severe acid rain pollution. More recently, large cities have been grappling with nitrous oxides, carbon monoxide, and photochemical smog, which are typical of vehicle emissions.

The burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal, in northern China, has had devastating consequences, shortening the lives of those exposed by an average of 5.5 years. The problem is so severe that only 1% of the 560 million people living in China's cities breathe air considered safe by European Union standards. This equates to around 50 million people. The World Bank acknowledged in a 1997 report that environmental regulations and industrial reforms were making some progress, but it was also estimated that hundreds of thousands of premature deaths were caused by industrial air pollution.

The Chinese government has implemented various programs to tackle the issue of air pollution and protect the environment. Beijing, for example, launched a four-color alert system in 2013, which was revised in 2016 to increase the levels of pollution required to trigger orange and red alerts. This was done to standardize alert levels across multiple cities, including Tianjin and Hebei.

China's economic growth and industrialization have had a significant impact on water quality as well. A large section of the ocean is devoid of marine life due to massive algal blooms caused by high nutrient pollution, which has spread internationally. According to the World Bank and SEPA's 2007 report, up to 760,000 people die prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution.

Urbanisation and energy consumption

China's rapid economic and social development has had a severe impact on its natural environment. Urbanisation and energy consumption are closely linked, and as China's cities have grown, so has the pressure on energy supplies and the natural environment.

The country's past economic growth has been substantially reliant on fossil fuels, and this has caused serious air pollution issues. Northern China, in particular, has dangerous levels of air pollution from burning fossil fuels, mainly coal, causing people to die on average 5.5 years earlier than they would otherwise. A 1997 World Bank report stated that "hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness have been caused by exposure to industrial air pollution". A later report in 2007 by the World Bank, in conjunction with China's national environmental agency, found that outdoor air pollution was causing 350-400,000 premature deaths per year.

The percentage of residential energy consumption out of total energy consumption has increased as urbanisation has progressed. Urban households consume 50% more energy per capita than rural households, and as the population grows, the demand for energy will increase. This is a significant challenge for China's economic and social development, and it is essential to understand the relationship between urbanisation and energy consumption to address energy security.

The good news is that technological advancements have been found to reduce the scale of production energy consumption (PEC). Urban policies that encourage compact urban growth, green buildings, and new energy vehicles could also play a vital role in saving energy.

Vehicle pollution

China's air pollution is largely attributed to the burning of fossil fuels, mainly coal, which has caused serious air pollution issues and led to premature deaths. The country's rapid industrialization and urbanization have exacerbated the problem, with the vehicle industry becoming a significant contributor.

The vehicle industry has been identified as a major source of air pollution in China, particularly in its cities. The rapid growth in new vehicle sales, especially after China became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001, has resulted in the vehicle industry becoming an increasingly significant contributor to Gross Domestic Product (GDP). By 2009, China had the largest vehicle market in the world.

However, the development of effective emission control measures has lagged, creating a stalemate between the booming automobile industry and the need for pollution control. Vehicle emissions, including carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons (HC), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulate matter (PM), have been identified as primary air pollutants. These emissions are a direct result of the consumption of large amounts of fossil fuels by vehicles.

Cities like Beijing, with its high population and simple transportation structure, have faced tremendous traffic demand, contributing to the high levels of vehicle emissions. Middle-sized cities, such as Langfang, bordered by larger cities like Beijing and Tianjin, have also experienced severe vehicle pollution due to the increasing vehicle population and delayed control policies.

To address this issue, various control policies have been proposed, including vehicle population constraint (VPC), public transportation promotion (PTP), new energy vehicles promotion (NEP), and freight transportation structure optimization (FTO). Hainan, a province in China, has taken the initiative to ban the sale of fuel-powered cars by 2030, aiming to reduce local air pollution emissions. However, the impact of these policies on air quality and carbon reduction requires further study.

Overall, the rapid development of the vehicle industry in China has significantly contributed to air pollution, and addressing this issue through effective policies and emission control measures is crucial for improving the country's air quality.

Soil pollution

China's air pollution issues have largely been caused by the country's past economic growth and industrialization, which have been substantially reliant on the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal. This has resulted in serious air pollution, causing hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness each year.

Now, turning to the topic of soil pollution in China, a direct consequence of the country's rapid industrialization and population growth since the 1980s has been the increase in soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection Administration considers soil pollution a significant threat to the environment, food safety, and sustainable agriculture.

Intensive agriculture, increasing exposure to wind and rain, and industrial activities such as non-ferrous metal mining, smelting, and the discharge of industrial effluent have contaminated China's soil. An estimated 38,610 square miles (100,000 square kilometers) of cultivated land have been polluted, with heavy metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium present in the soil, adversely affecting human health and metabolism.

In 2014, 16.1% of soil samples collected across China showed evidence of pollution. The government has recognized the severity of the issue and, in 2016, drafted a new plan of action to tackle soil pollution. This plan includes developing new technical guidelines for prevention and control, providing training for officials and cleanup professionals, and enhancing public awareness.

The World Bank's Contaminated Site Management Project, approved in 2015, also supports China's efforts to reduce soil pollution. This $15 million grant from the Global Environment Facility aims to assist the Chinese government in sustainably managing contaminated sites and reducing environmental and health risks.

Despite these efforts, challenges remain in creating incentives and financing mechanisms for cleanup, particularly in old industrial and rural areas. Soil pollution in China continues to pose a threat to the nation's food security and arable land.

Water pollution

China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization, coupled with inadequate investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure, have resulted in widespread water pollution. China's extraordinary economic growth has substantially relied on fossil fuels, causing serious air pollution issues. The burning of fossil fuels, mainly coal, in northern China, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than expected.

In 2015, 3.78 billion cubic meters of untreated wastewater was discharged across China, including 1.98 million cubic meters in Beijing alone. This wastewater, containing hazardous materials, is a major source of pollution, especially in urban centers. According to official standards, 85% of Shanghai's major rivers were undrinkable in 2015, and 56.4% were unfit for any purpose. Local governments have been criticized for failing to curb polluting industries, with reports of chemical waste disposal by companies like Luliang Chemical Industry in Yunnan province, which dumped 5,000 tons of chemical waste near a river used for drinking water.

China's water pollution crisis has severe health implications. A 2007 World Bank report, in collaboration with China's national environmental agency, estimated that outdoor air pollution caused 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths annually. Additionally, 60,000 people died from diseases potentially caused by waterborne pollution, such as diarrhea, bladder, and stomach cancer. The report highlighted that China's waterways are seriously contaminated by industrial discharges, rendering them largely unfit for direct human use.

The State Environmental Protection Administration considers soil pollution a significant threat to the environment, food safety, and sustainable agriculture. 38,610 square miles of China's cultivated land have been polluted, and contaminated water is used to irrigate an additional 31.5 million square miles. Furthermore, 2 million square miles of land have been covered or destroyed by solid waste, accounting for one-tenth of China's cultivable land.

To address the water pollution crisis, China's environment ministry has taken steps such as ordering provinces to meet their five-year water quality targets. However, data transparency is crucial, and all cities' water pollution data should be made public to hold local governments accountable.

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