Kiera Jefferson
Air pollution has been a concern since the time of Hippocrates, around 400 BC. However, the problems with human-caused air pollution began in the mid-1700s, with the Industrial Revolution, which saw a rapid increase in the burning of coal to power factories, engines and heat homes. This trend continued into the 19th century, with cities like London and New York experiencing episodes of smog (a combination of smoke and fog) that resulted in many deaths. Air pollution continued to be a significant problem through the 20th century, with incidents such as the 1948 Donora smog episode and the 1969 Cuyahoga River fire in the US, which led to the creation of the Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act, respectively. Today, air pollution remains a pressing issue, with large cities in economically developing nations tending to have worse air quality than those in developed nations.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date | Mid-1700s |
| Place | Europe and North America |
| Reason | Burning of coal to heat homes and power factories and engines |
| Major sources | Vehicles, airplanes, power plants, factories |
| Other sources | Cigarette smoke, e-cigarette smoke, wildfires, volcanoes, windblown sand or dust |
| Health effects | Short-term: pneumonia, bronchitis, irritation to nose, throat, eyes or skin, headaches, dizziness, nausea |
| Health effects | Long-term: heart disease, lung cancer, respiratory disease, damage to nerves, brain, kidneys, liver and other organs |
| Legislation | Clean Water Act (1972), Clean Air Act (1990), Air Pollution Control Act (1955), Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972), Oil Pollution Act (1990) |
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What You'll Learn
The Industrial Revolution
During the Industrial Revolution, cities across Europe and North America experienced a rapid increase in population, leading to urbanization and industrialization. This growth in urbanization and the expansion of factories resulted in a dramatic rise in emissions of primary pollutants, causing unprecedented levels of air pollution. The growing population also contributed to the increase in domestic emissions, as coal was burned for heating and cooking in private households.
The Second Industrial Revolution, from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, introduced electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine. This phase further intensified mass production and the growth of heavy industries, leading to exponential increases in energy consumption and resource extraction. The environmental consequences of this phase were significant, with each stage of industrialization adding to the cumulative strain on the environment.
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Burning fossil fuels
The burning of fossil fuels is a major source of air pollution. Fossil fuels include coal, natural gas, and oil. The problem of air pollution began in the mid-1700s during the Industrial Revolution, when more people started burning coal to heat their homes and power factories and engines. This trend of burning fossil fuels has continued to the present day, with vehicles, airplanes, power plants, and factories all contributing to air pollution.
Fossil fuels emit harmful air pollutants long before they are burned. A 2017 study published in Environmental Health Perspectives found that 17.6 million Americans were exposed daily to toxic air pollution from active oil and gas wells, as well as transport and processing facilities. These include benzene, which is linked to childhood leukemia and blood disorders, and formaldehyde, a cancer-causing chemical. Mining operations also generate toxic airborne particulate matter, and strip mining can release large stores of carbon.
When fossil fuels are burned, they release nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of smog and acid rain. Nitrogen is the most abundant element in the air and is essential to plant and animal life. However, human activities such as power generation, industry, transportation, and agriculture can upset the natural balance of nitrogen in the environment. The burning of fossil fuels associated with transportation and industry is a major source of nitrogen oxides in the United States.
In addition to nitrogen oxides, the burning of fossil fuels releases other harmful substances into the atmosphere. For example, ground-level ozone is created when sunlight reacts with certain chemicals that come from sources of burning fossil fuels, such as factories or car exhaust. When particles in the air combine with ozone, they create smog, a type of air pollution that is common in large cities and can be harmful to human health.
The combustion of fossil fuels has been linked to a range of negative health outcomes, particularly in children and vulnerable populations. Studies have found an association between air pollution and preterm birth, low birth weight, and an increased risk of neurodevelopmental disorders. Early-life exposure to air pollutants has also been shown to have transgenerational impacts, possibly through the transmission of epigenetic changes. The combustion of fossil fuels has been identified as the leading environmental threat to global pediatric health and equity.
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Population growth
The population growth that led to the emergence of the world's largest 'megacities' and the rapid economic expansion of these regions resulted in a surge in oil and coal consumption, which quickly became the biggest sources of fuel. Countries like India and Pakistan underwent massive industrialisation and urbanisation, turning them into the world's worst countries for air quality. The increase in urban population, coupled with economic development, energy consumption, transportation, and motorization, are major driving forces of air pollution in large cities, especially megacities.
In recent years, air pollution has contributed to approximately one in ten deaths globally, with low-income countries bearing the brunt of this burden. Indoor air pollution, caused by the use of polluting open fires or simple stoves for cooking fuelled by biomass or coal, affects around 2.4 billion people. Outdoor air pollution sources, including residential energy for cooking and heating, vehicles, power generation, and industry, further exacerbate the problem.
The impact of population growth on air pollution is evident in the world's most populous countries, such as China and India, which continue to experience high levels of air pollution and associated health risks. The combination of outdoor and indoor particulate matter, such as ozone, contributes to respiratory and other diseases, making air pollution a leading risk factor for death and poor health worldwide.
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Indoor air pollution
Household air pollution is generated by the burning of solid fuel sources such as firewood, crop waste, and dung for cooking and heating. This is particularly common in developing countries, where access to clean fuels is limited. As a result, around 2.1 billion people worldwide cook using open fires or inefficient stoves fuelled by these solid fuels, which generate harmful household air pollution.
The use of polluting fuels and technologies also requires significant time for cooking on inefficient devices and gathering and preparing fuel. In addition, indoor smoke can have levels of fine particles up to 100 times higher than acceptable in poorly ventilated dwellings. Exposure to indoor air pollution is particularly high among women and children, who spend the most time near the domestic hearth and are often responsible for household chores such as cooking and collecting firewood.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued guidelines for indoor air quality and household fuel combustion to address the negative health impacts of indoor air pollution. These guidelines provide recommendations on the types of fuels and technologies that protect health and strategies for transitioning to cleaner household fuels and technologies. WHO also maintains a global household energy database to monitor progress in adopting cleaner fuels and stove combinations in households.
The health effects of indoor air pollution can be severe and include irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, headaches, dizziness, fatigue, asthma, respiratory infections, heart disease, and cancer. These effects may occur soon after exposure or years later, and they can be severely debilitating or even fatal. It is important to improve indoor air quality even if symptoms are not noticeable, as the pollutants can have harmful effects on health.
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Legislation and activism
The Industrial Revolution in the mid-1700s marked the beginning of human-caused air pollution, as more people in Europe and North America burned coal to heat their homes and power factories and engines. By the 19th century, cities like New York and London experienced episodes of "smog" (a combination of smoke and fog), which resulted in many deaths.
In the 1950s, citizens played a crucial role in advocating for air pollution control legislation. They wrote letters to industry officials, senators, and even the president of the United States, raising public awareness about the hazards of air pollution to human health and the environment. This early activism revealed the inherent tensions between government, industry, and environmentalists, which would become more prominent in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first piece of legislation regarding air pollution, allocating federal funding for research. However, enforcement was left to state and local governments. In 1963, Congress passed the Clean Air Act of 1963, which expanded the role of the federal government in air pollution control and encouraged scientific research. Congress also passed other air pollution laws during the 1960s, including the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965 and the Air Quality Act of 1967.
The Clean Air Act of 1970 was a significant milestone, resulting from over two decades of citizen activism. This bipartisan legislation passed with overwhelming support and was signed into law by President Richard Nixon. It gave the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to regulate air pollutants and polluting industries, playing a crucial role in reducing the country's air pollution. Since then, the Clean Air Act has been revised and strengthened, with amendments in 1977 and 1990, addressing acid rain, ozone depletion, and tightening rules around automobile emissions.
Today, air pollution remains a global concern, with 99% of the world's population breathing air that exceeds guideline limits and contains high levels of pollutants. Young activists from various countries are campaigning to mitigate the harmful effects of air pollution on their communities. Grassroots activism has also led to federal legislation, such as the response to the Cuyahoga River fires in 1969, which resulted in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (commonly called the Clean Water Act) and the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement.
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Frequently asked questions
Air pollution is the presence of harmful chemicals or particles in the Earth's atmosphere, which can be harmful to the health of humans, animals, and plants. These pollutants can be in the form of gases, solid particles, or liquid droplets.
Air pollution has been a recognized threat to human health since the time of Hippocrates, ca 400 BC. However, problems with human-caused air pollution began in the mid-1700s with the Industrial Revolution, which led to a rapid increase in coal combustion and emissions of harmful substances.
The main sources of air pollution are human activities such as burning fossil fuels for energy, transportation, and industrial processes. Natural sources of air pollution include smoke from wildfires, ash from volcanoes, and windblown sand or dust.
