Helena Joyce
China's pollution problem has been well-documented, with the country's rapid industrialization, population growth, and domestic waste contributing to poor air and soil quality. The health impacts of pollution have been severe, with hundreds of thousands of premature deaths attributed to air pollution, and soil pollution threatening food safety and sustainable agriculture. In recent years, China has made notable progress in addressing pollution, with the government declaring a war on pollution and implementing various measures to improve air quality. These efforts have included investing in afforestation and reforestation programs, tightening regulations on industrial pollution, and promoting clean energy and emissions control. While China has seen significant improvements in air quality in recent years, challenges remain, as pollution levels still exceed the World Health Organization's guidelines, and further efforts are needed to ensure sustained progress.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Population growth | The population growth in China since the 1980s has resulted in increased soil pollution |
| Soil pollution | 38,610 sq. mi. (100,000 sq. km) of China's cultivated land has been polluted |
| Water pollution | Contaminated water has been used to irrigate 31,500 sq. mi. (21,670 sq. km) of land |
| Solid waste | 1,300,000 sq. mi. (2,000,000 sq. km) of land has been covered or destroyed by solid waste |
| Food contamination | 6 million tonnes of food grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year |
| Economic loss | China suffers an annual loss of $37 billion due to pollution-induced crop failure |
| Air pollution | The annual average concentration of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) across China was 57 micrograms per metre cubed in 2017, nearly six times the World Health Organisation's acceptable limit |
| Health impact | Poor outdoor air quality results in over 1 million deaths across China each year |
| Water scarcity | 500 million people in China lack access to safe and clean drinking water |
| Cancer | Industrial pollution has made cancer the leading cause of death in China |
| Air pollution control policies | China has issued around 30 laws related to the environment, hundreds of administrative rules, and detailed standards |
| Green financing | The Innovative Financing for Air Pollution Control Program has supported China's efforts to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 2.5 million tons per year |
| Reforestation | The Chinese government has introduced aggressive afforestation and reforestation programs, planting more than 35 billion trees across 12 provinces |
| Air quality improvement | Air quality improved by 35% in highly polluted northern Chinese cities between 2013 and 2017 |
| International impact | Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from China fall as acid rain on Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo, and reach as far as Los Angeles in the US |
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Air pollution
The Air Pollution Action Plan, released in September 2013, became China's most influential environmental policy. It helped the nation make significant improvements in its air quality between 2013 and 2017, reducing PM2.5 levels (atmospheric particulate matter) by 33% in Beijing and 15% in the Pearl River Delta. The average PM2.5 concentration dropped by 50% from 2013 to 2019, and China continued to improve air quality during the Covid era (2020-2022).
China has also been tackling air pollution with tech and big data. A pilot project in Cangzhou City, a city of over 7 million people in the polluted Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, combines multiple sources of air quality data to help regulators enforce air quality regulations. The project fills in the gaps between fixed government monitors and has built a new data platform that uses real-time data to map air quality across the city.
China has also become a leader in electric mobility, owning 99% of the world's 385,000 electric buses, with the number expected to increase to 600,000 by 2025. This has helped reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions nationally.
However, it is premature to celebrate the end of China's war against pollution. While China has made progress in reducing PM2.5 pollution, there is no indication that the government is reversing the increasing trend of other pollutants, such as ozone (O3). Ground-level ozone, a highly irritating gas created by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) reacting with nitrogen oxides released from vehicles, is a significant air pollutant that exacerbates respiratory conditions. The average ozone concentration in monitored cities reached 145 μg/m³ in 2022, up by 5.8% from 2021.
Further improvements will be challenging, as the easiest actions have already been taken. Targeting future regulations effectively requires robust data about the sources of air pollution, backed by strong enforcement to ensure any new regulations are adhered to.
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Soil pollution
Intensive agriculture, overuse of fertilizers, and exposure to wind and rain have contributed to soil erosion and depletion, reducing its carbon content and making it less fertile. The situation is particularly dire in provinces like Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning, which boast the country's most fertile black soil and produce a significant proportion of China's rice, soybeans, and corn.
The Chinese government has historically resisted acknowledging the problem, even classifying soil data as a "state secret." However, in recent years, there has been a shift towards recognizing the severity of soil pollution. In 2014, the government's soil survey revealed that 19% of China's farmland was contaminated with heavy metals and chemical pollutants. This contamination has had dire consequences, with stories of cancer and illness emerging from villages located near industrial sites.
In 2019, China's central government took action by enacting a new soil pollution law to clean up contaminated sites. Additionally, they launched a national soil census in 2022, updating data from 40 years ago. Conservation agriculture, which blends ancient practices like composting with new technology, has also been adopted on millions of hectares of land. While these efforts are a step in the right direction, the cost and complexity of remediating the damage done to the soil are enormous.
The situation in Shuangqiao, Hunan Province, exemplifies the challenges China faces in addressing soil pollution. The Xianghe Chemical Factory, located near the village, has been linked to cadmium poisoning and deaths. Despite promises to turn the nearby Xiang River into a symbol of beauty and prosperity, the basin contains hundreds of sludge sites with solid waste contaminated by heavy metals. The pollution has not only contaminated the soil but also affected the drinking water for 20 million people.
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Water pollution
China's water pollution problems are serious and widespread. The country's rapid socioeconomic development and industrialization have resulted in severe water pollution, with industrial wastewater, domestic sewage, agricultural pesticides, and manure contaminating surface and groundwater sources. In 2018, only 81.6% of rivers, 25% of lakes, 87.3% of reservoirs, and 23.9% of shallow groundwater met the criteria for drinking water supply sources. Climate change and increasing water demand due to urbanization have further exacerbated water scarcity and pollution issues.
The Chinese government has recognized the urgency of addressing water pollution and has taken several critical actions. In 2015, the State Council promulgated the Action Plan for Water Pollution Prevention and Control, emphasizing local governments' responsibility for improving water quality. By 2017, major cities had achieved goals such as eliminating large floating objects and garbage from river surfaces and banks and preventing illegal sewage discharge. The government has also invested significantly in water cleanup projects, spending over $100 billion in the first half of 2017 alone.
To strengthen environmental monitoring and governance, the Law on Environmental Protection was modified in 2014 to enhance data transparency. The Ministry of Environmental Protection has utilized citizen participation by establishing a WeChat account where citizens can report polluted rivers. Additionally, China has formulated policies to reduce water pollution, with a focus on consumption-side measures like dietary structure changes and terminal treatment improvements, such as enhancing wastewater treatment rates and livestock manure utilization.
Despite these efforts, water pollution remains a significant challenge. Beijing's consistent prioritization of economic growth over environmental health has resulted in dangerous pollution levels and poor soil health. The impact of water pollution extends beyond China's borders, affecting the global environment and neighboring countries. Furthermore, water pollution carries economic and social costs, with cleanup efforts requiring substantial financial investments.
While China has made notable commitments to reducing water pollution, the effectiveness of its policies varies across provinces, and full implementation remains a challenge. The country continues to face water scarcity and public health risks due to inadequate water quality, particularly in northern basins. China's ongoing modernization and economic development present opportunities and challenges for water security, with wastewater emissions increasing and outpacing waste-management infrastructure development.
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Electronic waste
China is the world's largest importer and producer of electronic waste or e-waste, with over 70% of all global e-waste ending up in the country's dumpsites. The country is anticipated to generate approximately 28.4 million tons of e-waste in 2030, replacing the US as the largest global e-waste producer.
The problem of e-waste in China is largely attributed to the country's role in the neoliberal trade and the transboundary movement of electronic waste. Studies have found that the trade of electronic waste occurs from developed countries to developing countries with lax regulations, such as China. The economic incentives created by strict domestic regulation in developed countries, non-existent or unenforced regulations in developing countries, and the ease of free trade brought about by globalisation have led recyclers to export e-waste to China.
The e-waste problem in China has resulted in serious environmental damage and permanent health risks in areas surrounding disposal sites. The constant movement and processing of e-waste have led to harmful and toxic living conditions in places like Guiyu, which has been nicknamed the "electronic graveyard of the world". The soil surrounding factories in Guiyu has been saturated with lead, chromium, tin, and other heavy metals, which have leached into the groundwater, making the water undrinkable. The town's residents have the highest reported levels of lead and dioxin found in people globally, with over 70% of children exhibiting high lead levels in their bloodstreams.
While the Chinese government and the international community have taken action to regulate e-waste management, ineffective enforcement, legislative loopholes, and the pervasiveness of informal recycling have hindered progress. The Chinese government has implemented various environmental legislations and programs to regulate the electronic product production and e-waste management sectors. For example, the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) passed a regulation prohibiting e-waste from being imported, and the Home Appliance Old for New Rebate Program was initiated to encourage the collection of old appliances by authorised collectors. However, the government has not expressed any intention to ban informal waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) collection, and the profitability and community dependency on the industry have made it challenging to enforce regulations.
To address the e-waste problem, Greenpeace has lobbied for manufacturers to use fewer toxic chemicals in their products and encouraged consumers to consider the disposal of their electronic devices. Enhanced regulations and sophisticated recycling technologies are crucial in controlling the release of pollutants into the environment.
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Population growth
The immense urban growth in Chinese cities has also contributed to water pollution. The rapid population increase, coupled with lax environmental oversight, has led to increased water demand and pollution. China's waterways have been severely contaminated by industrial discharges, rendering them largely unfit for direct human use. The World Health Organization reported that approximately 2 million people died from air pollution in China in 2016, underscoring the serious health consequences of pollution in the country.
Several studies have examined the relationship between population density and air pollution in China. Some studies suggest that an increase in population density can reduce air pollution by promoting the use of clean energy and public transportation. However, other studies have found a positive correlation between population density and PM2.5 concentrations, indicating that higher population density contributes to increased air pollution. The impact of population growth on economic growth is complex. While a large population can promote economic growth through agglomeration effects, it can also reduce the value of GDP per capita if the scale of GDP fails to expand faster than the population.
To address pollution, the Chinese government has implemented various measures, such as targeting large industries and vehicle emissions. In 2013, the government published a plan to reduce coal consumption by closing polluting mills, factories, and smelters, transitioning to eco-friendly energy sources, and enforcing stricter vehicle emission standards. These efforts have shown some success, with a decrease in PM2.5 levels in key cities between 2013 and 2015. However, China continues to face challenges in balancing economic growth with environmental and social welfare, and it remains to be seen whether it can fully address its air pollution problems.
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Frequently asked questions
China has made significant progress in reducing pollution, but it has not been completely fixed. The country has implemented various measures, such as the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, afforestation and reforestation programs, and the use of technology and big data to monitor and reduce air pollution. As a result, air quality has improved, and the average citizen's life expectancy is expected to increase. However, China still has a long way to go to reach the World Health Organization's (WHO) air quality guidelines.
The primary sources of pollution in China are industrial activities, vehicle emissions, and coal-fired power plants. Population growth has also contributed to increased soil pollution and contaminated water supplies.
The health impacts of pollution in China are severe, with hundreds of thousands of premature deaths attributed to air pollution each year. The Chinese Ministry of Health has identified industrial pollution as the leading cause of cancer in the country. Poor air quality also affects the quality of life, with respiratory illnesses and other diseases on the rise.
China has implemented a comprehensive government program to tackle air pollution, including investing in energy efficiency, renewable energy, and emissions control. They have also introduced laws and regulations related to environmental protection and air quality management. In addition, China has partnered with international organizations, such as the World Bank, to secure financing for its pollution control efforts.
"White pollution" refers to the colour of white plastic shopping bags, Styrofoam containers, and other light-coloured materials that have been improperly disposed of and have polluted agricultural fields, landscapes, and waterways since the mid-1990s. China has implemented bans and legislation to address this issue, but proper waste disposal remains a challenge.
