Submarines And Water Pollution: What's The Real Damage?

Nuclear submarines have the potential to cause significant water pollution, particularly in the Arctic marine environment. The consequences of nuclear weapons, radioactive waste dumps, and sunken submarines on the environment are a pressing concern for many nations. Nuclear cores, made of uranium and plutonium, are not water-soluble, but the risk of corrosion and leakage remains. The US Navy has been accused of dumping low-activity nuclear waste into coastal waters, and there is a current global moratorium on dumping radioactive submarine parts at sea.

Nuclear submarines and the risk of corrosion and leakage

Nuclear submarines have been a significant feature of naval warfare since the 1950s, with the US and Soviet Union pioneering their development and deployment. However, these submarines face the risk of corrosion and leakage, which can have severe consequences for the marine environment and human health.

The useful lifetime of a nuclear submarine is estimated to be around 25 to 30 years. After this period, the vessel becomes susceptible to corrosion and component fatigue, escalating maintenance costs, and obsolescence. The decommissioning process for nuclear submarines is complex and costly, typically involving defuelling and removing radioactive components before disposing of the hull and reactor at specialised sites.

The risk of corrosion and leakage in nuclear submarines is not merely hypothetical. In July 2019, a sunken Soviet nuclear submarine was found to be leaking unusually high levels of radiation in Norwegian waters. The Komsomolets, which sank in 1989, released up to 800,000 times the normal amount of radioactive caesium into the sea. While experts stated that the leak did not pose an immediate risk to human or marine life, it highlighted the potential dangers associated with nuclear submarine accidents.

Earlier radiation leaks from Soviet submarines in the 1970s and 1990s resulted in more than 20 radiation fatalities. These incidents were attributed to early Soviet endeavours, which prioritised rapid development over safety and reliable reactor designs. By the late 1970s, Russia's third generation of marine PWRs had improved safety and reliability standards, reducing the likelihood of such accidents.

The US nuclear navy, in contrast, has an excellent safety record, with no reported radiation incidents since the launch of the USS Nautilus in 1954. This exemplary record is due to the high standardisation of naval power plants, stringent maintenance protocols, and comprehensive training programs for personnel.

In summary, nuclear submarines face inherent risks of corrosion and leakage, which can result in radiation accidents. While improvements in technology and safety standards have reduced the frequency of such incidents, the potential environmental and health impacts remain a significant concern, underscoring the necessity for rigorous safety measures and effective decommissioning processes for these powerful vessels.

Radioactive waste disposal

The practice of ocean disposal has been banned by international treaties since 1993, including the London Convention (1972), the Basel Convention, and MARPOL 73/78. These treaties aim to control and prevent marine pollution from specific substances, with the London Convention now prohibiting all materials from marine dumping except for a thoroughly researched list of certain wastes. Despite the ban, there have been reports of leakages of radioactive material from dump sites, although the environmental impact is considered negligible.

The US Navy, for instance, has been working on the Ship-Submarine Recycling Program (SRP), which is the process used to dispose of decommissioned nuclear vessels. Before recycling, the vessel's nuclear fuel must be removed, and this defueling process usually coincides with decommissioning. The spent nuclear fuel is then shipped to the Naval Reactor Facility at the Idaho National Laboratory for storage. The submarine is then cut into several pieces for further processing.

In the past, the US Navy has also scuttled nuclear reactors in the ocean, such as in the case of the USS Seawolf in 1959, where the reactor was sunk in the Atlantic Ocean. However, with the ban on ocean disposal, the US Navy has since studied alternative methods, and in 1995, shallow land burial of reactor compartments was selected as a preferred option.

Sunken submarines

The USS Thresher, a US nuclear submarine, sank in 1963 during deep-diving trials due to a reactor scram, loss of propulsion, and failed attempt to blow the emergency ballast tanks, causing it to exceed crush depth. All 129 people on board perished. The USS Scorpion, a Skipjack-class submarine, met a similar fate in 1968, sinking 400 nautical miles southwest of the Azores. While the exact cause is unknown, it is believed to have imploded upon reaching crush depth, claiming the lives of all 99 crew members.

The Soviet Navy has also experienced several submarine sinkings, including the K-8, which flooded and sank in 1970 while being towed through rough seas after a fire on board, resulting in the deaths of all 52 sailors involved in the towing operation. The K-27, a liquid metal-cooled reactor submarine, was decommissioned in 1979 due to persistent reactor issues and later scuttled in shallow water in the Kara Sea in 1982, contrary to the recommendations of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Submarine sinkings are not limited to military vessels. The German submarines U23 and U20, for example, sank during World War II and now lie off the coast of Turkey in the Black Sea.

Nuclear weapons

The potential risks associated with nuclear submarines arise in the event of an accident, improper disposal, or violent destruction. Accidents involving nuclear submarines have attracted public attention, such as the incident involving the USS Carl Vinson, an aircraft carrier powered by two nuclear reactors. Additionally, there have been instances of submarines leaking radioactive material, such as the K-278 Komsomolets, which leaked plutonium from a torpedo, although it was later sealed and deemed insignificant.

The disposal of nuclear reactors and contaminated parts from nuclear vessels is strictly regulated. The Department of Defense and the Department of Energy are responsible for disposing of and monitoring radioactive components. Safety zones are established around contaminated sites to restrict public access and ensure proper handling by trained professionals. The nuclear fuel is removed and sent for processing, while reactor compartments are carefully sealed and transported to approved disposal sites.

Despite safety measures, there is still a risk of corrosion and leakage over time. Ingar Amundsen, an expert from the Norwegian Nuclear Safety and Radiation Authority, warns that nuclear submarines will eventually pollute the waters if left unattended. The potential consequences of sunken submarines with nuclear weapons and reactors on board are severe, posing a global danger that requires immediate international attention and negotiation.

While some argue that the risks of nuclear submarines are exaggerated and that the solution to pollution is dilution, others emphasize the potential for catastrophic reactor failures and the long-term environmental impact of radioactive waste. The impact of nuclear weapons and submarines on the marine environment, particularly in sensitive regions like the Arctic, remains a critical issue that demands ongoing monitoring, strict safety protocols, and international cooperation to mitigate potential ecological disasters.

Submarine waste handling

Submarines are unique in that they operate as closed systems, carrying everything they will use for the entirety of their mission. This means that there is space to store waste rather than discharge it. Submarines generate food waste, grey water, and black water. Food-contaminated waste must be stored in sealed cans in frozen food lockers. There is a strong conservation ethic among submariners, and many crews have voluntarily reduced the amount of solid waste discharged.

A 1994 US Navy waste-handling study for the new design NSSN concluded that proper management of the solid waste stream could allow storage and eliminate any waste discharges. The study also suggested that better garbage disposals, compactors, and sealed storage packages could help manage waste.

The US submarine force is composed largely of attack submarines (SSNs) and ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), with a few research submarines. All US submarines are nuclear-powered and can stay submerged for entire missions lasting up to several months. Unlike surface ships, submarines are almost never resupplied at sea and begin their patrol with all the necessary foodstuffs and supplies.

Submarine waste streams differ from those of surface ships. For example, the cardboard portion of submarine waste is not discharged but stored on board. The accuracy of submarine waste data is probably not high, but it does support the diligent job submariners have done in reducing unnecessary packaging materials.

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