China's Pollution Problem: A Complex Challenge

China has been facing a severe pollution problem for several years, with fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) and light pollution being prevalent in the country. The primary sources of air pollution in China are industry, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage. Water pollution is also a significant issue, with 90% of the country's groundwater contaminated by toxic waste, farm fertilisers, and industrial discharges, causing about 70% of rivers and lakes to be unsafe for human use. China has implemented various policies and technologies to reduce pollution, such as banning the importation of electronic waste and increasing waste incineration capabilities, and has seen improvements in air quality in recent years. However, China still faces challenges in meeting the World Health Organization's (WHO) air quality guidelines and addressing water pollution, biodiversity loss, and ocean plastic pollution.

Water pollution

China's rapid economic growth, industrialization, and urbanization, coupled with insufficient investment in basic water supply and treatment infrastructure, have resulted in widespread water pollution. Over half of China's population (approximately 700 million people) consumes drinking water contaminated with animal and human waste. By 2000, the volume of wastewater produced had almost doubled from 1990 levels to approximately 78 billion tons.

A study by the Lowy Institute estimates that 80-90% of groundwater in China is now unsuitable for drinking, and 50% is too polluted even for agricultural use. Additionally, 75% of lakes and reservoirs are too polluted for fishing and human consumption. Eutrophication, caused by pollution runoff from agriculture, industry, and urban sewage, has plagued numerous lakes in China, resulting in oxygen depletion in the water. According to official reports, as of the turn of the century, 75% of monitored lakes and 80% of rivers were graded at levels suitable mainly for industrial use.

China's rivers have suffered significant water quality impairments due to the environmental impact of economic development since the country's Reform and Opening-up in 1978. Elevated levels of anthropogenic nutrients, such as total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) and total dissolved phosphorus (TDP), are critical factors contributing to the reduced water quality in Chinese rivers. These excess nutrients are then transported to lakes and oceans, causing frequent blooms and red tides that endanger human, aquatic, and ecosystem health.

However, there are signs of improvement. China's inland water quality showed marked improvement or was maintained at favourable levels from 2003 to 2017. In 2008, the Law of the People's Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution was enacted, tightening regulations on water environmental protection. China's war against pollution, announced in 2014, has resulted in a 41% decrease in fine particulate air pollution (PM2.5) compared to 2013 levels. If these improvements are sustained, the average life expectancy of the Chinese population is expected to increase by 2 years.

Air pollution

China's air pollution has been a pressing issue, causing widespread environmental and health concerns. The country's industrialisation and population growth have significantly contributed to the problem. Various forms of pollution, particularly air pollution, have increased, leading to severe consequences.

The impact of air pollution on the health of Chinese citizens is profound. According to the Chinese Ministry of Health, industrial pollution, including air pollution, has made cancer the leading cause of death in China. High levels of air pollution in Chinese cities are responsible for an estimated 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths annually, with another 300,000 deaths attributed to poor indoor air quality. Additionally, air pollution shortens the life expectancy of the average Chinese resident. In Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, the most polluted area, the average person is expected to lose 4.3 years of life expectancy compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline.

However, China has made notable progress in addressing air pollution in recent years. Since declaring a ""war against pollution" in 2014, the country has achieved a 41% reduction in fine particulate pollution (PM2.5) by 2022 compared to 2013 levels. This progress has resulted in a potential gain of 2 years in the average life expectancy of Chinese citizens, provided these improvements are sustained.

Despite these efforts, challenges remain. China's overall particulate pollution average meets its national standard of 35 µg/m³, but it still exceeds the WHO guideline of 5 µg/m³. Almost the entire population (99.9%) lives in areas where particulate pollution exceeds the WHO guideline. Therefore, continued environmental reforms and sustainable practices are crucial to further reducing air pollution in China and improving the health and well-being of its citizens.

Lead pollution

China's pollution problem is well-documented, with particulate pollution being one of the five greatest threats to human health in the country. Air pollution in China leads to about 2 million deaths per year, with ambient air pollution causing more than a million of those.

In China, children are exposed to lead through a variety of sources, including folk medicine, tin pots, tinfoil, and lead-based paint. A survey of 515 children with elevated blood lead levels (BLLs) found that only one participant indicated lead exposure from lead-based paint, while the majority cited non-industrial sources such as folk medicine, tin pots, and tinfoil. However, lead-based paint has been found in children's toys, play jewellery, and sunglasses imported from China, indicating that it is still a concern.

The prevalence of childhood lead poisoning in China is evident from a review of epidemiological data on BLLs of 735,271 Chinese children aged 0-6 between 1987 and 2017. This review found that 24.1% of these children suffered from lead poisoning, with a geometric mean BLL of 95.1 μg/L. While there has been a decrease in the geometric mean BLL value over time, a rebound was seen in 2016 and 2017, indicating that lead pollution remains a significant issue in China.

The Chinese government has acknowledged the seriousness of lead pollution, with the Ministry of Health issuing guidelines for diagnosing and treating lead poisoning in children. However, more needs to be done to address the problem, including identifying and reducing potential sources of child lead exposure.

Plastic waste pollution

China is the world's biggest producer and consumer of plastics. In 2020, China produced about 60 million tonnes of plastic waste, but only 16 million tonnes of it were recycled. On average, only about 17% of the plastic used in China is recycled. China is also the largest exporter of single-use and virgin plastics and was the largest importer of plastic until 2018. Before China implemented a ban on plastic waste imports, its annual imports of plastic waste reached 8.88 million tons, with as much as 70.6% buried or mismanaged, triggering a series of environmental problems.

China's contribution to the global plastic crisis is significant, and it is the largest source of mismanaged plastic waste and the biggest offender of ocean plastic pollution. The Yangtze River, the longest river in Asia, has been linked to more than half of all marine plastic pollution. However, more recent studies have found that the Philippines accounts for more than one-third of plastic inputs in oceans, while China's contribution is 7%.

China has not ignored the environmental impact of plastic pollution and has taken aggressive strides to combat this growing problem. China has implemented a ban on free shopping and carrier bags, with a 2016 survey showing that plastic bags in supermarkets and shopping malls have reduced by more than two-thirds. China has also banned the production, retail, and use of some plastic products, such as non-degradable single-use plastic straws. In 2020, China introduced the "opinions on further strengthening the control of plastic pollution" to actively tackle plastic pollution and improve waste management.

While China has made efforts to address plastic pollution, the focus is still on back-end policy, with little regulatory attention on the upstream part of the plastic lifecycle. Most of China's plastic policies focus on plastic packaging, disposable tableware, and the import of plastic waste. However, China's plastic policy landscape is evolving, with a recent focus on economic policy instruments and economic incentives.

Biodiversity loss

China has among the highest biodiversities in the world, but it is facing extreme biodiversity losses due to population growth and socioeconomic development. The country's genetic resources have decreased sharply in the past 60 years, and 233 vertebrate species are in danger of extinction. China's biodiversity loss is caused by a multitude of factors, including multiple environmental stressors, habitat destruction, pollution, overexploitation of resources, and climate change.

The by-products of industrial activities have severely damaged China's ecosystems. Industrial solid waste, including coal gangue, tailings, slag, pulverized coal, and chemical waste residues, often ends up in poorly managed landfill sites or is dumped, causing severe pollution of natural habitats. This has led to the decline of several species of amphibians, mammals, and reptiles. The major areas affected by industrial solid waste overlap with those of biodiversity-loss species in northern and southern China.

Deforestation and land degradation have also significantly impacted China's biodiversity. The country has lost 90% of its grasslands and 40% of its wetlands, and the area of undisturbed primary forest has decreased by 50,000 km2 annually. This has led to the endangerment of plant species, with 15-20% of China's higher plant species now endangered.

Agricultural practices have also contributed to biodiversity loss in China. Agrochemicals and fertilizers have led to a remarkable increase in food production, but they have also caused biodiversity loss. Overfishing and the illegal wildlife trade have further threatened numerous species.

Water pollution, particularly from ocean plastic pollution, is another critical issue. A study found that all 21 species of sea fish and freshwater fish examined from Chinese waters had ingested plastic, which has entered the food chain. The construction of the Three Gorges Dam has also permanently damaged the habitat of the already-endangered baiji dolphin, rendering them 'functionally extinct' by the end of 2006.

While China has made significant efforts and investments in biodiversity conservation, the results have been mixed. The centralized approach to conservation planning has led to an inflexible and inefficient implementation due to conflicts between local communities and national administrators. China has established comprehensive national targets for 2020, including environmental indicators such as effective control of major pollutants and evident improvement of ecosystems. However, biodiversity considerations need to be incorporated into all relevant policies and planning processes to effectively address the issue.

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