India's Water Pollution: Understanding The Crisis

India's water crisis is a complex issue with far-reaching consequences. With a booming population and rapid urbanisation, the country's water bodies are increasingly becoming toxic. It is estimated that 70% of India's surface water is unfit for consumption, and the problem is only worsening with time. The main sources of this pollution are untreated sewage, industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal. This has led to severe health issues, with water-related diseases causing 400,000 deaths per year in India alone. The economic impact is also significant, with environmental degradation costing the country an estimated $80 billion annually. With ineffective government measures and poor infrastructure, India's water crisis is a pressing issue that demands immediate attention and innovative solutions.

Population growth and urbanisation

India is the world's second most populated country, with 1.3 billion people as of 2023, and this number is expected to grow to 1.7 billion by 2050. This booming population, combined with rapid urbanisation, has had a significant impact on the country's water demand and pollution levels.

The population is crammed into an area one-third the size of the United States, and India only possesses 4% of the world's freshwater resources. This mismatch between the spatial distribution of available water and the population has led to a severe water crisis. The situation is further exacerbated by rampant government corruption, severe lack of regulation, over-privatisation, and general neglect, resulting in multiple generations struggling to access safe and clean water.

As more and more people migrate to urban centres in search of better drinking water facilities, the strain on water resources in these areas increases. Major cities in India produce 38,354 million litres per day (MLD) of sewage, but the urban sewage treatment capacity is only 11,786 MLD. This gap between sewage generation and treatment capacity has led to a severe pollution problem, with rivers, lakes, and surface water in India being contaminated by untreated sewage and solid wastes.

The central government has largely left wastewater treatment management to state governments, leading to a huge disparity in wastewater management across the country. While efforts have been made to increase the number of sewage treatment plants (STPs) and encourage the reuse or recycling of treated wastewater, the majority of government-owned STPs remain closed most of the time due to improper design, poor maintenance, lack of reliable electricity supply, absentee employees, and poor management.

Poor waste management

Firstly, India's sewage treatment capacity is insufficient to manage the volume of sewage generated. Major cities in India produce 38,354 million litres per day (MLD) of sewage, yet the urban sewage treatment capacity is only 11,786 MLD. This disparity leads to the discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage into water bodies, causing severe organic and bacterial contamination. The government-owned sewage treatment plants that do exist often remain closed due to improper design, poor maintenance, or lack of reliable electricity supply, further exacerbating the issue.

Secondly, industrial waste is often directly discharged into rivers and other water bodies without adequate treatment. This wastewater contains heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper, chromium, zinc, and arsenic, which have detrimental effects on aquatic life and human health. From 2016 to 2017, it was estimated that 7.17 million tonnes of hazardous waste were produced by industrial plants, with 746 industries directly depositing wastewater into the Ganga river alone.

Thirdly, solid waste management is also a concern. India's mounting untreated municipal solid waste contributes to waste leakage into aquatic environments, with a particular risk for rivers. This is due to poor waste segregation practices and a lack of circular waste management systems. As a result, India contributed to 10% of waste leakage to the world's rivers in 2020, according to a study.

Furthermore, open defecation and poor sanitation practices are prevalent in India, with nearly half of the country's population practising open defecation. This, combined with inadequate treatment of waste, leads to the contamination of water sources with harmful bacteria and pathogens, causing waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, and hepatitis.

Lastly, agricultural runoff, including the use of banned pesticides such as Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and Aldrin, also contributes to water pollution. These agrochemicals are resistant to degradation and can cause bioaccumulation in water bodies, posing risks to both human health and aquatic life.

While efforts are being made by the government, NGOs, and community organizations to address these issues, there is still a long way to go to effectively combat water pollution and ensure access to clean and safe water for all in India.

Industrial discharge

Several industries, including textiles, food, paper, pharmaceuticals, tanneries, and chemical plants, release large volumes of untreated wastewater into nearby water sources. This practice is widespread in India, with major cities generating approximately 38.3 billion liters of wastewater daily, of which only about 60% is treated. As a result, untreated wastewater contaminates the underground water supplies of adjacent villages and affects the health of those who rely on it.

The industrial development that began in rural India in the late 1990s has transformed small-scale cities into industrial hubs, and many of these industries fail to implement proper water disposal techniques. Instead, they resort to inexpensive and environmentally detrimental disposal methods, such as direct discharge into nearby water bodies.

The issue of industrial water pollution in India is exacerbated by the lack of effective regulations and enforcement. While the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1974 establishes standards for wastewater treatment, there is a significant gap between the generation and treatment of industrial wastewater. The existing sewage treatment plants in India are often poorly designed, maintained, or managed, and they remain closed most of the time.

To address the issue of industrial water pollution, India has taken several initiatives, including the Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) water treatment process, which aims to eliminate liquid waste from highly polluting industries. However, the country still struggles to implement stricter regulations and effective wastewater treatment methods to protect its water resources and the health of its citizens.

Agricultural runoff

Agricultural practices, such as the overuse of pesticides and fertilisers, play a crucial role in water pollution. When these chemicals are applied to crops, they can be washed off during rainfall or irrigation, leading to surface runoff that eventually reaches nearby water bodies. Additionally, seepage and drainage from agricultural fields can continue to pollute streams and rivers even after the monsoon season, as observed in studies on rural ponds and other stagnant water bodies.

Farming in floodplains further exacerbates the issue, as these areas inevitably require larger amounts of fertilisers and pesticides, which then flow into rivers during floods. This phenomenon was observed in the Yamuna River, a tributary of the Ganga, where treated and untreated wastewater discharged into the river led to increased levels of heavy metals, such as nickel, manganese, lead, and mercury, in the agricultural soil along its banks.

The consequences of agricultural runoff are far-reaching. Firstly, it directly impacts water quality, making it unsafe for human consumption and harmful to aquatic life. Contaminated water is a significant cause of waterborne diseases, including cholera, typhoid, and hepatitis, posing serious health risks to the population. Secondly, it affects soil fertility, leading to reduced crop yields and impacting food security in the country. Moreover, the economic impact of water pollution includes healthcare costs, loss of livelihoods for fishing communities, and expenses for water treatment and purification processes.

To address the issue of agricultural runoff, India has taken several initiatives, including the Ganga rejuvenation efforts by the union government and the Yamuna clean-up. Additionally, organisations like the Environmentalist Foundation of India are leading civil society efforts to clean lakes and ponds across the country, demonstrating a growing awareness and commitment to tackling water pollution and promoting sustainable agricultural practices.

Lack of treatment capacity

India's water pollution crisis is a complex issue with far-reaching consequences for public health and the environment. One of the critical factors contributing to this crisis is the lack of adequate treatment capacity to manage the country's sewage and wastewater.

The gap between sewage generation and treatment capacity is significant. Major Indian cities produce approximately 38,354 million litres per day (MLD) of sewage, yet the urban sewage treatment capacity falls far short, at only 11,786 MLD. This disparity results in a large volume of untreated sewage being discharged into water bodies, primarily rivers. As a result, many Indian rivers, including the iconic Ganga, Yamuna, and Sabarmati, are severely polluted with a deadly mix of hazardous and organic pollutants.

The shortage of treatment capacity is exacerbated by the inadequate operation and maintenance of existing sewage treatment plants. Government-owned plants often remain closed due to design flaws, poor maintenance, unreliable electricity supply, absenteeism, and mismanagement. This situation leads to the accumulation of uncollected waste in urban areas, creating unsanitary conditions and further contaminating surface and groundwater sources.

To address this challenge, India has been working to expand its water treatment capacity. Since 2005, the Indian wastewater treatment plant market has been growing at a rate of 10 to 12 percent annually, with significant investments in sewage treatment plants and electricity infrastructure development. Additionally, alternative technologies such as Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) and natural wetlands have been explored as more economically feasible options for treating municipal wastewater.

However, the need for improved treatment capacity remains urgent, especially with India's projected population growth. The country aims to triple its water treatment capacity and match its daily sewage water treatment requirements by 2020. Strengthening state pollution control boards, enforcing effluent standards, and ensuring proper pricing for water to maintain treatment plants are also crucial steps in addressing the lack of treatment capacity and mitigating India's water pollution crisis.

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