Beijing's Air Pollution: A Complex Crisis

Beijing, China's capital, has been suffering from severe air pollution for many years. The city's topographical location, surrounded by mountains, ensures that pollution remains trapped within its limits. The primary sources of pollutants include exhaust emissions from over five million motor vehicles, coal-burning in neighbouring regions, dust storms from the north, and local construction dust. The transport sector, with its rising car ownership, has been an important part of the problem, but also the solution, with the city now embracing electric buses and reintroducing bike-sharing schemes. The air pollution in Beijing has severe consequences for the health of its citizens, with high levels of harmful emissions leading to hundreds of flight cancellations and frequent road closures.

Coal-burning factories and power plants

Beijing's air pollution is caused by a combination of geographical factors and human activities, including the burning of coal for industrial and power generation purposes.

The burning of coal releases various pollutants, including particulate matter (PM2.5), ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide. These pollutants have severe health consequences for Beijing's residents, with studies linking the high pollution levels to shortened lifespans and premature deaths.

To address the issue of coal-burning factories, the Chinese government has taken some measures, such as relocating factories to other provinces and converting coal furnaces in homes to natural gas. However, there is a complex interplay of factors contributing to Beijing's air pollution. For example, while policies limiting cars in Beijing were implemented, the presence of a large number of diesel-engine trucks on the city's outskirts may offset the expected emission reductions.

Additionally, China's construction of new coal-fired power plants reached a ten-year high in 2024, with 94.5 gigawatts (GW) of new coal-power capacity started. This resurgence in coal-fired power plants has raised concerns about the country's transition away from fossil fuels. However, there are signs that the central government may be embracing a shift towards renewable energy sources, as evidenced by a sharp drop in new coal power permits in H1 2024.

Overall, Beijing's air pollution is influenced by a combination of factors, including coal-burning factories and power plants, geographical characteristics, and policy decisions. Addressing the issue requires a comprehensive approach that considers regional coordination, the implementation of new technologies, and a transition to cleaner energy sources.

Geography and topography

Beijing's topography is a significant factor in its poor air quality. Surrounded by mountains, the city often finds pollutants trapped within its limits. The winds that would otherwise clear the skies instead bring smog and harmful emissions from the industrialised southern regions, exacerbating the problem.

The geography of Beijing, and its location relative to other regions, is a key factor in its air pollution. To the south and east of Beijing is a large concentration of coal-burning industries. The pollutants from these factories are carried by winds into Beijing and trapped by the mountains to the city's north and west.

The industrial emissions from the heavily industrialised province of Hebei, which surrounds Beijing, are a major contributor to the city's poor air quality. The emissions from heavy industries such as coal power, steel, cement, and glass manufacturing, coupled with traffic fumes, cause regular air pollution episodes.

Beijing's location in the northeast corner of China places it in close proximity to these polluting industries. The geography and topography of the region, therefore, play a crucial role in trapping pollutants and contributing to the city's air quality issues.

The city's topography and natural surroundings are not the sole causes of Beijing's air pollution crisis. However, they significantly influence the concentration and impact of pollutants. The confluence of industrial emissions, vehicle emissions, and geographical factors has led to a complex web of challenges for Beijing's environment and the health of its residents.

Vehicle emissions

The control of vehicle emissions is critical for improving Beijing's air quality. In recognition of this, Beijing has upgraded its emission and fuel standards twice in the past decade, and improved vehicle structures by accelerating the elimination of old vehicles. As a result, the emissions of four key air pollutants (CO, VOCs, NOx, and PM2.5) from vehicles in Beijing decreased by an average of 68% in 2019 compared to 2009 levels.

However, there are still challenges to mitigating vehicle emissions in Beijing. The number of vehicles has continued to increase, outpacing the development of transportation infrastructure. The slow growth of highway networks, in particular, has worsened emissions from slow-moving traffic, with average vehicle speeds below 20 kilometers per hour during the daytime. Additionally, the policy limiting cars in Beijing may be backfiring, as the reduced emissions from cars could be offset by the high number of diesel-engine trucks operating in the city's outskirts.

To further reduce vehicle emissions, Beijing can consider implementing comprehensive policies such as promoting public transportation, adopting new energy vehicles, and optimizing the freight transportation structure. Electric vehicle adoption is expected to play an important role in reducing pollutant emissions, with the potential to decrease total emissions by 20%-41% by the end of the 14th Five-Year Plan period.

Inadequate environmental laws

Beijing's air pollution is a result of various factors, including heavy industry, coal-burning factories, and unfavourable topography. While the Chinese government has implemented policies to address air quality, Beijing's air pollution remains a significant issue due to inadequate environmental laws and enforcement.

China's rapid industrialization has led to widespread environmental and health problems. Heavy industries, dominated by state-owned enterprises, have been a significant source of pollution. These industries enjoy cheap energy and loans, and their influence has hindered the implementation of environmental regulations. In addition, China's Belt and Road Initiative, a massive infrastructure program, has been criticized for inadequate environmental protection measures, with allegations of human rights abuses and displacement of Indigenous communities.

Beijing's air quality is further impacted by its geographical location. Surrounded by mountains, the city experiences trapped pollution, with smog worsening during spring and summer due to temperature, humidity, and wind patterns. The city's topographical characteristics amplify the effects of pollution sources, such as factories and power plants.

While the Chinese government has introduced policies like the Atmospheric Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2018 Amendment), enforcement remains a challenge. Fines for violations are often so minuscule that corporations choose to pay them instead of changing their practices. Additionally, there is a lack of transparency in reporting pollution levels, with the government only reporting AQI numbers up to 500 and focusing on specific particle sizes.

The complexity of the haze situation and the mechanisms driving pollution are also factors. For example, the policy restricting cars in Beijing may be counteracted by the presence of diesel-engine trucks on the city's outskirts, which can contribute significantly more pollutants than cars. Furthermore, citizen activism and protests have played a role in pushing for environmental reform, but the government's response has often been criticized as inadequate, especially before the 2010s.

To conclude, Beijing's air pollution is a complex issue influenced by a combination of geographical factors and inadequate environmental laws. While the Chinese government has taken some steps to address pollution, effective enforcement, transparency, and comprehensive strategies are crucial for achieving lasting improvements in air quality.

Population growth and urbanisation

Beijing's air pollution has multiple causes, including an economic boom, a surge in motor vehicles, manufacturing output, and natural causes such as topography and seasonal weather. Population growth and urbanisation are key factors in Beijing's poor air quality.

Population Growth

Population growth in Beijing has been rapid. The city's population increased from 11 million to 16 million in just seven years, doubling over the past century. This increase in population contributes to extensive pollution. As the population grows, so does the demand for goods and services, leading to increased industrial and manufacturing output, which in turn results in higher emissions and more pollution.

Urbanisation

Urbanisation has a complex relationship with air pollution. On the one hand, it can lead to the agglomeration of industries, promoting the merger and reorganisation of small enterprises, reducing unit pollution emissions, and improving resource allocation efficiency. This can result in a decrease in pollution levels, as seen in some studies.

However, urbanisation also contributes to population aggregation, where people move from rural areas to cities, increasing the population density in urban areas. This population aggregation can aggravate pollution levels, particularly in the form of haze pollution. Additionally, the rapid and unplanned nature of urbanisation in many low- and middle-income countries can lead to inadequate infrastructure and poor management of air pollution, further exacerbating the problem.

The effects of urbanisation on air quality can vary depending on the specific context and stage of urban development. For example, eastern cities in China that are more urbanised should focus on improving transport infrastructure and utilising the positive externality of the urban agglomeration effect to achieve sustainable development. In contrast, western cities, which are in the primary stage of urbanisation, should control the development of resource-intensive industries, promote environment-friendly industries, and reduce dependence on heavily polluting approaches.

Frequently asked questions