Greta Jimenez
Africa is facing some of the world's most severe health impacts from air pollution, with five countries on the continent ranking among the ten most polluted. In 2019, air pollution was the second leading risk factor for death across Africa, causing 1.1 million deaths. The death rate linked to air pollution in Africa is almost double the global average. The burden of air pollution on African livelihoods and population health is among the highest in the world. The sources of air pollution in Africa include fossil fuel use for energy production, transportation, industrial facilities, waste burning, residential fuel use, and forest fires.
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What You'll Learn
Fossil fuel combustion
In South Africa, the combustion of fossil fuels, particularly coal, for electricity generation is a major industry. The country's reliance on coal-fired power plants has resulted in high emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter (PM2.5). These pollutants have severe health impacts, with exposure linked to respiratory diseases, cardiovascular issues, and cancers. South Africa's Eskom, a public utility company with close ties to the government, operates many of the country's most polluting power plants.
Egypt, another country with a high air pollution burden, is taking steps to address the issue. The Greater Cairo Air Pollution Management and Climate Change Project aims to improve solid waste management and reduce waste burning, as well as promote the use of electric buses and vehicles in the capital city. Ethiopia is also making efforts to improve air quality in Addis Ababa through the implementation of an Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP).
Across Africa, fossil fuel combustion for energy production, transportation, and industry contributes significantly to outdoor PM2.5 levels. Southern Africa, in particular, relies heavily on fossil fuel use, while residential fuel use is a more significant contributor in Eastern and Central Africa. The combustion of fossil fuels releases not only particulate matter but also hazardous gases, including nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide, which have detrimental effects on human health and the environment.
The health impacts of fossil fuel combustion-related air pollution in Africa are profound. It is estimated that air pollution is responsible for approximately 48,000 avoidable deaths in Africa each year, with many more suffering from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, as well as cancers. The social cost of fossil fuel combustion in South Africa alone is estimated to be at least R550 billion per year, including deaths, diseases, and working days lost.
Addressing fossil fuel combustion and transitioning to renewable energy sources is crucial for improving air quality and reducing the health and environmental impacts of air pollution in Africa.
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Household air pollution
Africa experiences some of the worst air pollution and most severe health consequences in the world. In 2019, air pollution was the second leading risk factor for death across Africa, with more than 1.1 million deaths linked to exposure to air pollution.
The prevalence of household air pollution varies across Africa, with higher rates in Eastern and Central Africa due to residential fuel use. In 2019, Somalia had the highest prevalence, with 78% of households using solid cooking fuels, while Egypt had the lowest at 0.02%.
Health Impacts
The health impacts of household air pollution are significant, particularly for women and children who spend the most time near the domestic hearth. Exposure to indoor smoke more than doubles the risk of childhood pneumonia and is responsible for over 50% of premature deaths from pneumonia in children under five. Women exposed to high levels of indoor smoke are more than twice as likely to suffer from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) than those using cleaner fuels and technologies.
Additionally, household air pollution contributes to acute lower respiratory infections in adults and is a risk factor for ischaemic heart disease, stroke, and other chronic respiratory diseases. Overall, it is estimated that 3.8 million people die prematurely each year from household air pollution caused by the inefficient use of solid fuels and kerosene for cooking.
Mitigation Efforts
Some African countries have taken steps to improve indoor air quality by transitioning to cleaner fuels and technologies. For example, the Seychelles transitioned from solid fuels to liquefied petroleum gas, and several East African countries have implemented policies to allow only low-sulphur fuels. Additionally, governments are investing in solar and wind power plants to provide clean and affordable energy to rural areas, reducing the reliance on burning wood fuel and coal.
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Poor urban planning
Africa is experiencing rapid urbanisation, with over 65% of its population expected to live in urban areas by 2060. This rapid urbanisation is drastically increasing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Poor urban planning has led to large numbers of people living in congested and poorly serviced housing. This exacerbates the problem of pollution.
The sources responsible for PM2.5 pollution vary within and between countries and regions across Africa. Residential fuel use, fossil fuel use for energy production, transportation, industry, and waste burning significantly contribute to outdoor PM2.5. Fossil fuel use is the biggest contributor in Southern Africa, while residential fuel use is an important contributor in Eastern and Central Africa. For example, energy production contributes to 23% of the ambient PM2.5 levels in South Africa.
Desert dust, also referred to as sand and dust storms, is a mixture of particulate matter from desert or arid areas. In the Sahara and Sahel regions of North Africa, as well as in Western Africa, windblown dust is a significant contributor to total PM2.5. In addition, the common pollutants responsible for urban air pollution include nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds. These are attributed to vehicular emissions, industries, waste combustion, heating of buildings, and other anthropogenic activities.
Some countries are beginning to undertake policy measures to improve their air quality. For example, in Egypt, the Greater Cairo Air Pollution Management and Climate Change Project aims to improve air quality in the capital city through improved solid waste management to reduce pollution from waste burning and pilot efforts to expand the use of electric buses and vehicles in the city. In Ethiopia, Addis Ababa's first Air Quality Management Plan outlines the city's vision and commitment to implementing pollution reduction strategies in priority sectors.
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Industrial emissions
Africa is undergoing a transition from traditional to modern sources of pollution. Industrial emissions are a significant contributor to air pollution in Africa. Large and small-scale industrial activities emit harmful substances into the air, causing respiratory diseases and cancers in humans. The handling of fuels and materials, as well as production processes such as petrochemicals, charcoal, brick, cement, and steel production, all contribute to industrial air pollution. Fossil fuel production in the oil and gas industry is a major source of methane and other volatile pollutants, which contribute to ground-level ozone and climate change.
The Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME) sector in Africa is a growing source of emissions. However, there are opportunities for energy efficiency gains and emission reductions in industries such as charcoal production and brick-making. Strategies such as leak detection and repair programs, replacing vent-by-design equipment, and reducing flaring can help mitigate methane emissions in the oil and gas sector.
Some African countries have begun to implement policies to improve air quality. For example, Egypt's Greater Cairo Air Pollution Management and Climate Change Project focuses on solid waste management and the expansion of electric buses and vehicles. Ethiopia's Addis Ababa Air Quality Management Plan outlines the city's commitment to implementing pollution reduction strategies.
To address industrial emissions specifically, policies should focus on cleaner technologies that reduce smokestack emissions, improved waste management, and the adoption of renewable energy sources. By transitioning to renewable sources like solar, wind, hydropower, and geothermal, Africa can reduce pollution and build a more sustainable future.
Community activism plays a crucial role in holding governments accountable for reducing air pollution. Environmental groups have successfully challenged the South African government over violations of the constitutional right to clean air, forcing major polluters to disclose emissions data and reduction targets. Strong policy interventions, coupled with a shift towards renewable energy and clean technologies, offer Africa the opportunity to combat industrial emissions and improve air quality for its citizens.
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Desert dust
Saharan dust is transported across the world, reaching Europe, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Ocean. This transport is influenced by wind patterns, which determine the size and height of the particulate matter loft. For example, during spring, summer, and early fall, when the Saharan Air Layer forms, dry and dusty air masses are carried by trade winds towards the Caribbean. Similarly, early spring is the most active period for Saharan dust transport into Europe.
The impact of desert dust on air quality is significant. Windblown dust is a notable contributor to total PM2.5 in the Sahara and Sahel regions of North Africa, as well as in Western Africa. During Saharan dust storms, there is substantial evidence of the association between windblown desert dust and mortality and morbidity. In addition to health impacts, dust also affects the environment, transport, and infrastructure, resulting in economic losses.
The health effects of desert dust are influenced by its interaction with other pollutants. Desert dust outbreaks can be influenced by the presence of nearby anthropogenic emission sources, such as large petrochemical and power plants in Northern Africa. Additionally, the transport of aged air masses from highly polluted regions can cause the deposition of anthropogenic pollutants on dust particles. These interactions can enhance the health impacts of dust outbreaks, as evidenced by the enrichment of organic carbon and the presence of persistent organic pollutants, metals, and microbes in African dust outbreaks.
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Frequently asked questions
Air pollution in Africa is caused by both indoor and outdoor activities, with the latter being responsible for most of the world's air pollution. Outdoor air pollution is caused by burning fossil fuels to produce electricity and power vehicles, industrial emissions, vehicular exhaust, windblown dust, and crop burning. Indoor air pollution is caused by the use of solid fuels and inefficient cookstoves.
Air pollution is responsible for millions of deaths in Africa each year. It is the second-largest cause of death in Africa, with only AIDS causing more deaths. It is also responsible for respiratory and other diseases, including lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), stroke, and ischaemic heart disease.
Air pollution imposes significant economic costs on African countries. It diminishes economic productivity, impairs human capital formation, and undermines development. The annual cost of health damages due to air pollution-related diseases amounts to an average of 6.5% of GDP across Africa.
Efforts are being made to address air pollution in Africa. Some countries are implementing policy measures to improve air quality, such as improved waste management and the expansion of electric buses and vehicles. Others are transitioning to cleaner fuels and vehicles, investing in renewable energy sources, and establishing air quality monitoring systems and regulations.
