China's Air Pollution Crisis: Causes And Effects

China is facing a significant air pollution crisis, with millions of premature deaths attributed to poor air quality. The country's rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to a surge in harmful emissions, particularly from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, which has been the main driver of China's economic development. Vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and household fuel usage also contribute to the problem. Despite some improvements during the COVID-19 era, air pollution in China remains a critical issue with far-reaching consequences for public health, the environment, and the economy, both domestically and internationally.

Coal consumption

China's rapid industrialization and economic growth have been powered by coal, a cheap but highly polluting source of energy. In 1990, coal accounted for 76.2% of China's energy consumption, and while this has decreased over time, it still made up 57.7% in 2019. Coal-fired power plants and coal-powered industries are major contributors to China's air pollution, emitting harmful pollutants such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10).

The burning of coal releases fine particles that can penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream, causing respiratory diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and premature deaths. According to various studies, air pollution from coal combustion has led to hundreds of thousands of premature deaths in China each year. The pollution has also spread internationally, with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides falling as acid rain on cities in South Korea and Japan, and even reaching the United States.

While China has made some efforts to improve air quality and reduce coal consumption, such as launching anti-pollution campaigns and enforcing stricter regulations, these efforts have been challenged by the country's continued focus on economic development and increasing construction of coal-fired power plants. In 2023, China's coal imports surged, and its thermal coal power generation climbed 7.3% year-over-year, accounting for nearly 70% of the nation's electricity generation. This escalating reliance on coal power not only undermines China's pollution control efforts but also jeopardizes its goal to peak climate-warming emissions by 2030.

The rebound in air pollution levels in recent years has been attributed to the recovery of social and economic activity after the pandemic. Additionally, issues with enforcement and a lack of press freedom have hindered progress in reducing emissions and improving air quality in China.

Vehicle emissions

The development of the auto industry has led to a corresponding expansion of China's road network. However, the capacity of China's urban road network is insufficient to meet the demands of the booming vehicle industry. This has resulted in heavy traffic congestion, which increases traffic flow and, in turn, produces more O3 precursor emissions, leading to further adverse air quality issues. Notably, the North China Plain, Yangtze River Delta, and Sichuan Basin—areas with a higher number of vehicles and population density—have exhibited notable increases in NOx, VOCs, and CO emissions.

Air pollution caused by vehicle emissions exhibits inter-city variations within China. In 2014, a study found that 95.9% of 74 surveyed cities in China failed to meet the PM2.5 emission standard, with only three cities exhibiting relatively clearer air due to lesser traffic flow and industrial pollution. Beijing, for instance, saw its air quality index (AQI) soar to 993 in January 2013, far beyond levels considered extremely dangerous by health experts.

To address vehicle emissions, more than a dozen heavily populated areas in China, including Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Hebei province, began enforcing the sixth stage of motor vehicle emissions standards in July 2019. Additionally, the accurate temporal allocation of vehicle emission inventories is beneficial for air quality simulation and the formulation of effective environmental control policies.

Health impacts

Air pollution in China has had a significant impact on the health of its citizens, contributing to about 2 million deaths in the country per year. This figure includes deaths caused by both ambient air pollution and household air pollution. The leading causes of air pollution in China include industry, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage.

The health effects of air pollution in China have been widely studied, and the physical health consequences have been a major focus of research. The fine particles in polluted air can penetrate deep into the lungs and cardiovascular system, causing diseases such as stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and respiratory infections. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified particulate matter (PM), specifically PM2.5, as the most harmful pollutant. These particles are less than 2.5 microns in diameter and can enter the bloodstream, causing serious health issues.

The impact of air pollution on health varies across regions in China. For example, in Central and Western China, longer durations of good air quality in autumn and winter were associated with improved health scores, while an inverse correlation was observed in Eastern China. Additionally, socioeconomic factors play a role, with higher education, income, life satisfaction, and stable marital status contributing to better health outcomes among individuals exposed to air pollution.

The mental health effects of air pollution in China have not been extensively studied, but it is recognized that air pollution can also damage mental health. The social, economic, and political consequences of air pollution are also significant, affecting quality of life and posing challenges to the government in balancing economic growth with environmental and social welfare.

China has taken measures to address air pollution, such as the anti-pollution campaign launched in 2013, which focused on controlling PM2.5 levels. While some improvements have been made, air pollution remains a critical issue, and China's continued industrialization and reliance on fossil fuels, particularly coal, continue to contribute to the problem.

Government response

The Chinese government has taken several steps to combat the country's air pollution crisis, which poses significant risks to the health and well-being of its citizens.

In 2013, after record-high air pollution in northern China in 2012 and 2013, the State Council issued an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution. This plan aimed to reduce PM2.5 levels by over 10% from 2012 to 2017, with Beijing aiming for a 25% reduction. The government also targeted the burning of solid fuels by households, announcing a plan in 2018 to replace coal-burning heaters with natural gas and electric heating systems in nearly 1.2 million homes across 11 cities. However, due to a short supply of natural gas, this policy was reversed in 2019.

To address air pollution from coal-burning power plants, the government has begun retiring older, less efficient coal plants and replacing them with ultra-supercritical facilities designed to produce more energy with less coal. In 2016, China released sub-plans under the Thirteenth Five-Year Plan framework, targeting a reduction in coal's share of total energy consumption to 58% by 2020.

The Chinese government has also set air quality targets and enforced stricter regulations. Beijing, for instance, launched a four-color alert system in 2013, based on the air quality index (AQI). The government has also increased monitoring of air quality, influenced by the U.S. Embassy in Beijing's independent monitoring and data disclosure starting in 2008.

However, China's efforts to balance economic growth and environmental well-being have been challenging. In 2021, the government set less stringent air quality targets than in 2020, easing pressure on industries. Additionally, local governments have launched new "high energy, high pollution" programmes to boost economies without adequate environmental considerations. China's progress in improving air quality has been noted, with a 42.3% reduction in air pollution levels between 2013 and 2021, but it remains to be seen if this trend will continue.

International impact

China's air pollution has had a significant impact on the international community, affecting the health and economies of other countries. As the world's largest emitter of anthropogenic air pollutants, China's actions have far-reaching consequences.

One of the most significant ways China's air pollution impacts the international community is through the global trade system. China's manufacturing sector, which produces a large volume of goods for export, is a major contributor to the country's air pollution. In 2006, it was estimated that 21% of export-related Chinese emissions were attributed to exports to the United States. These emissions have tangible health impacts on the citizens of these trading partner nations. Furthermore, the environmental damage caused by the production of goods for export has sparked discussions on the responsibility of consumer nations for the emissions associated with their consumption. This has led to calls for international agreements that address transboundary air pollution control and consumption-based accounting of emissions.

China's air pollution has also contributed to the degradation of air quality in neighbouring countries. For example, smog from mainland China has reached as far as California, and its emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides have fallen as acid rain on Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo. According to the Journal of Geophysical Research, this pollution even extends to Los Angeles in the United States. This transboundary movement of air pollution highlights the global reach of China's environmental issues and the need for international cooperation to address them.

In addition to the direct health and environmental impacts, China's air pollution has also influenced international relations. The country's decision to limit its imports of contaminated waste and recyclables in 2018 negatively impacted western waste exporters. This move was interpreted as a strategic action against Western countries. Additionally, China's domestic environmental challenges have been acknowledged as an "acute political challenge" to the ruling Communist Party, further complicating its international relations.

While China has made some progress in improving its air quality, the issue remains a pressing concern. The country's escalating reliance on fossil fuels, particularly coal power, continues to contribute significantly to air pollution. This trend jeopardizes China's goal of peaking climate-warming emissions by 2030 and has global ramifications. However, it is important to recognize that China's efforts to reduce pollution have been acknowledged, and its success in steeply lowering pollution levels has contributed to the decline in global pollution.

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