The Air Pollution Control Act: Key Players

The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first federal legislation in the US to address air pollution. It was the culmination of much research done on fuel emissions by the federal government in the 1930s and 1940s, as well as a response to the deadly Donora smog event of 1948, which opened up a national dialogue about the seriousness of air pollution and the urgent need for robust federal legislation and standards.

The 1948 Donora smog event

The impact of the smog was devastating. Within a few days, 20 people lost their lives, and nearly a third of Donora's population of 14,000 fell ill with respiratory issues and other symptoms such as hoarseness, chest pain, nausea, and vomiting. The event sparked a national dialogue about air pollution and the need for federal legislation to address it. It also jumpstarted the fields of environmental and public health, bringing attention to the potential dangers of industrial processes and the lack of regulation.

The Donora smog event led to the first large-scale epidemiological investigation of an environmental health disaster in the United States. It prompted the publication of articles and books, including Berton Roueché's acclaimed piece "The Fog" in The New Yorker and Devra Davis' novel "When Smoke Ran Like Water." The incident also resulted in lawsuits against the American Steel & Wire Company, although the company settled without accepting blame.

The impact of the 1948 Donora smog event extended beyond the immediate aftermath. Even ten years later, mortality rates in Donora remained elevated compared to nearby communities. Studies conducted in 1961 and subsequent years revealed higher rates of cancer and cardiovascular disease in the region. Researchers also found that contaminants from the zinc plant continued to pose risks to human health and the environment decades later.

The Donora Smog Museum, established in 2008, serves as a reminder of this tragic event and its role in shaping environmental protection in the United States. The incident is often credited with helping to trigger the clean-air movement, which culminated in the Clean Air Act of 1963. This legislation mandated the development and enforcement of regulations to protect the public from hazardous airborne contaminants.

The United States Bureau of Mines

The USBM's initial role was to provide safety and health inspections for mines across the United States, replacing some state inspection operations. Over time, the bureau's responsibilities expanded to include the identification and development of new processes and technologies.

Some notable achievements of the USBM include:

• Uncovering the world's largest deposits of lead and zinc at Alaska's Red Dog Creek, attracting hundreds of millions of dollars in capital investments for mine development.
• Developing technologies that contributed to a 97% reduction in fatalities from mine disasters between 1907 and 1993.
• Inventing self-rescue equipment to aid miners' breathing in underground emergencies.
• Developing low-cost methods to extract radium for cancer treatment.
• Establishing production processes for titanium and zirconium, essential for aerospace, automobile, and naval manufacturing.

The USBM also played a role in addressing air pollution. Following the 1948 Donora smog event, the USBM, alongside the United States Public Health Service, was one of the primary federal agencies interested in air pollution control. The USBM focused on "smoke abatement", aiming to reduce smoke from coal burning.

In 1995, Congress voted to close the USBM, transferring its functions to other federal agencies. The closure resulted in significant budget cuts and employee layoffs, with specific health, safety, and materials programs transferred to the Department of Energy, and minerals information activities moved to the U.S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Land Management. Despite its closure, the USBM's legacy continues to impact the fields of mining technology, mine safety and health, and the mineral industry.

The United States Public Health Service

The origins of the PHS can be traced back to the system of marine hospitals that originated in 1798. These were consolidated into the Marine Hospital Service in 1871, and shortly afterward, the position of Surgeon General and the PHSCC were established. As the system's scope grew to include quarantine authority and research, it was renamed the Public Health Service in 1912.

The PHS's headquarters were in the Butler Building, a converted mansion across from the United States Capitol, from 1891 until April 1929. In 1929, it expanded into office space in Temporary Building C on the National Mall, which became its temporary headquarters. In May 1933, the new Public Health Service Building opened on the National Mall. By 1943, PHS contained eight administrative divisions, plus the National Cancer Institute, St. Elizabeths Hospital, and Freedmen's Hospital under the direct supervision of the Surgeon General.

In the late 1920s and continuing through the New Deal era, a significant building campaign upgraded several marine hospitals into large, monumental buildings. In 1948, following the Donora smog event, the public began to discuss air pollution as a major problem, and the PHS, which handled industrial hygiene and was concerned with the causes of lung health problems, became increasingly involved in addressing air pollution.

The PHSCC employs more than 6,000 uniformed public health professionals to deliver public health promotion and disease prevention programs and advance public health science. The mission of the PHSCC is to protect, promote, and advance the health and safety of the people of the United States. This is achieved through rapid and effective responses to public health needs, leadership and excellence in public health practices, and the advancement of public health science.

The Federal Air Pollution Control Act of 1955

The Act was the result of much research done on fuel emissions by the federal government in the 1930s and 1940s, and the increasing awareness of air pollution as a serious problem. The 1948 Donora smog event, in which 20 people died and a third of the town's population of 14,000 fell sick, had brought the issue of air pollution to national attention. This led to a series of laws being passed by states to reduce air pollution, and discussions in Congress about further action.

The 1955 Act did little to actively prevent air pollution, and left states principally in charge of prevention and control. However, it did begin to inform the public about the dangers of air pollution, and detailed new emissions standards. It also allowed Congress to reserve the right to control this growing problem.

The Clean Air Act of 1963 replaced the 1955 Act, aiming to tackle air pollution with expanded research efforts and a new public health program. The 1967 Air Quality Act expanded federal government activities, with enforcement proceedings in areas with interstate air pollution transport. The Clean Air Act was amended several times, notably in 1970, 1977, and 1990, with the latter amendments granting significantly more authority to the federal government than any prior air quality legislation.

The Clean Air Act of 1963

The 1963 Act required the development of State Implementation Plans (SIPs) as part of a cooperative federalist program for developing pollution control standards and programs. It also established nationwide air quality standards for six air pollutants defined in the act as criteria pollutants: ground-level ozone, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and lead.

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