Greta Jimenez
Air pollution is the greatest environmental health threat in Europe, causing an estimated 239,000 premature deaths in 2021, according to the European Environment Agency. While all EU countries report nitrogen dioxide levels above WHO-recommended levels, some countries are more affected by air pollution than others. North Macedonia, Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria, and Montenegro have high death rates linked to air pollution. Turkey has been named the most polluted country in Europe, with high carbon dioxide pollution and low forest coverage, followed by Poland, Germany, France, and Italy, which have the highest overall GHG emissions.
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What You'll Learn
Turkey is the most polluted country in Europe
Turkey's carbon dioxide pollution is 4.33 tonnes per capita per year, and the concentrations of PM2.5, fine particulate matter that can be harmful to human health, are 41 µg/m3, well above the World Health Organization guideline limit of 10 µg/m3. As a result, there are 44 deaths attributable to air pollution per 100,000 capita per year in Turkey, a significant number.
The country also struggles with waste management, as it discards 424.625 kg of waste per capita each year. In addition, Turkey has a low percentage of forest area, with only 15.2% of the country covered in forests, which can help compensate for pollution. The combination of these factors contributes to Turkey's high pollution levels.
Several factors contribute to Turkey's high air pollution levels. Road transport and vehicle density are major polluters, with the number of vehicles on Turkey's roads increasing significantly in recent decades. In addition, coal-fired power plants, industry, and diesel vehicles are significant sources of emissions, including nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. The lack of regulations on PM2.5 and the failure to meet EU standards for ambient air quality and emissions further exacerbate the problem.
Turkey's high pollution levels have severe health impacts. Air pollution is the most lethal environmental issue in the country, causing over 30,000 deaths each year from related illnesses. It particularly affects children's health and increases the risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and acute respiratory infections. Reducing air pollution to World Health Organization limits could have significant health benefits for the country.
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North Macedonia has the most pollution-related deaths
North Macedonia has the highest number of pollution-related deaths in Europe, according to a recent report by the European Commission and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The country's capital, Skopje, is often ranked as one of the most polluted cities in Europe and even the world. In February 2024, it was among the top 10 polluted cities globally, and its PM10 and PM2.5 levels frequently surpass the safe thresholds.
The rate of premature deaths in North Macedonia is higher than in most European Union states, with approximately 1,350 people dying annually due to air pollution-related causes in 2015, and over 3,000 in 2019. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers air pollution a "public health emergency," and it is the leading environmental health risk in Europe, causing 8.8 million premature deaths annually. According to the EU Research Result website, 2,574 people die prematurely each year in North Macedonia as a direct result of air pollution.
The primary causes of air pollution in North Macedonia include emissions from unregulated vehicles, the burning of outdoor waste, domestic heating, and industrial activities. The country's geographical location in a valley surrounded by mountains also contributes to the problem, as it traps fog and pollutants. Additionally, the use of firewood and carbon for heating during winters, heavy traffic, and old cars that do not meet EU emission standards further exacerbate the situation.
The health impacts of air pollution in North Macedonia are severe, particularly for infants and young children. It is estimated that one in nine infant deaths in the country is linked to air pollution, and children under five are among the most vulnerable populations. Air pollution causes respiratory and cardiovascular issues, with heart diseases and strokes accounting for 80% of premature deaths related to pollution. It also increases the risk of pneumonia, upper respiratory tract infections, ear infections, asthma, and allergies.
To address these pressing issues, UNICEF has called on the North Macedonian government and institutions to increase their attention and resources to prevent worsening air pollution. They recommend supporting energy efficiency, improving access to clean energy, enhancing air quality, and protecting pregnant women and children from exposure to pollutants.
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Germany, France, and Italy had the highest GHG emissions in 2021
Germany, France, and Italy are among the top contributors to the European Union's GHG emissions, which amounted to 3.5 Gt CO2 eq in 2021. Germany emitted 760 Mt CO2 eq in 2021, a reduction of 39.2% compared to 1990 levels. France and Italy also witnessed significant declines in emissions during this period, with reductions of 23.1% and 19.9%, respectively. These three countries, along with Poland and Spain, accounted for two-thirds of the EU's emissions in 2021.
Germany has set ambitious targets for reducing its greenhouse gas emissions. The country aims to achieve net greenhouse gas neutrality by 2045, with interim goals of cutting emissions by at least 65% by 2030 and 88% by 2040 compared to 1990 levels. Germany's emissions have been on a downward trend, with a notable 10% decrease in 2023 compared to the previous year. This can be attributed to the increasing adoption of renewable energy sources and the decline in fossil fuel energy generation.
France has also made strides towards reducing its GHG emissions. The country's emissions showed a 23.1% decline in 2021 compared to 1990. France, along with other EU members, is subject to the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS I), which covers around 40% of the bloc's total emissions. This system employs a "cap-and-trade" approach, where companies must hold emission allowances for each tonne of CO2 emitted, creating an incentive to reduce emissions.
Italy, the third-highest emitter among the three countries, saw a 19.9% reduction in GHG emissions in 2021 compared to 1990. Northern Italy has experienced elevated rates of PM2.5 mortality, driven by residential sources such as burning coal for heating and agricultural activities. Italy, as part of the EU, is also subject to the EU ETS I and the Effort Sharing Regulation, which covers emissions from transport, buildings, waste, smaller industries, and agriculture.
While Germany, France, and Italy are making efforts to curb their GHG emissions, they continue to be significant contributors to Europe's overall emissions. The EU's emissions rose by 5.1% in 2021 compared to 2020, highlighting the need for continued commitment and action to meet the climate targets set out in the Paris Agreement and other international frameworks.
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Poland, Hungary, and Romania have the worst climate policies
Europe is facing a deadly threat from air pollution, which is causing around 239,000 premature deaths annually. While all EU countries report nitrogen dioxide levels above the recommended limit, North Macedonia, Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria, and Montenegro are among the worst affected. Northern Italy, Poland, and the Czech Republic have also seen elevated rates of PM2.5-related deaths.
Poland, Hungary, and Romania have been criticised for their inadequate climate policies and actions. Poland ranks 47th in the 2025 Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI), an improvement from its previous ranking. The country has recently shifted towards a more pro-climate stance, but it still lacks a coherent and coordinated decarbonisation strategy. Poland relies heavily on coal, which dominates its energy mix, and has been criticised for its lack of political courage for more ambitious climate action. Experts recommend that Poland establish a long-term GHG reduction policy and phase out coal more rapidly.
Hungary ranks 45th in the CCPI, with a very low rating in Climate Policy. While Hungary has climate policies that align with EU targets, including achieving carbon neutrality by 2050, the implementation of these policies falls short. Hungary's strategy lacks clear, actionable measures, with a top-down approach that does not consider real data in critical sectors such as buildings, transport, and agriculture. The focus remains heavily on the energy sector, and the government continues to subsidise energy-intensive industries.
Romania, while not specifically mentioned in the sources, is included in the list of countries with the worst climate policies based on its ranking in the CCPI. While the exact ranking is not provided, Romania is noted as one of the high-performing EU countries in terms of climate policy, along with Sweden, Estonia, Denmark, Portugal, the Netherlands, and Slovakia. However, being included in this list indicates that Romania may still have areas for improvement in its climate policies and actions.
Overall, Poland, Hungary, and Romania face challenges in their climate policy implementations, including a lack of clear strategies, coordination issues, and resistance to ambitious climate action. These shortcomings contribute to their reputation as countries with inadequate responses to the pressing issue of climate change.
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Ozone damages crops, forests, and biodiversity
According to recent data, North Macedonia has the most polluted air in Europe, with Turkey and Poland close behind. All EU countries currently report nitrogen dioxide levels above the WHO-recommended levels.
Ozone pollution is an insidious and growing threat to biodiversity. It is a colourless gas that can affect sensitive vegetation and ecosystems, including forests, parks, and wildlife refuges. Ozone can harm vegetation during the growing season, reducing photosynthesis—the process that plants use to convert sunlight into energy to live and grow. It can also slow plant growth and cause visible marks on leaves. Some of the knock-on effects of ozone include:
- Making plants less nutritious.
- Diminishing the scent trails that pollinators follow.
- Changing the timing of leaf fall, which can affect the forest floor and the microbial communities that inhabit it.
- Impacting the root systems of plants and trees and the microbes, fungi, and other organisms that live there.
- Reducing harvests of staple food crops such as corn, wheat, and soybeans.
Ozone also makes plants more susceptible to insects, disease, and drought. It can alter the biogenic volatile organic compounds that plants emit, such as isoprene and terpenes, which are critical to ecosystem functions. Research has shown that ozone increases forest susceptibility to wildfires, as ozone-sensitive, fire-resistant species of pine are replaced by species that are more likely to burn.
Ozone does more damage to plants than all other air pollutants combined, and it is predicted to cause a substantial decline in global food production. As temperatures rise, the problem is only expected to worsen.
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Frequently asked questions
Turkey is the most polluted country in Europe, with a score of 6.1/10.
The pollution level is measured by the carbon dioxide pollution per capita per year, the concentrations of PM2.5, and the number of deaths attributable to air pollution per capita.
Luxembourg has the highest carbon dioxide emissions in Europe, with 14.51 tonnes per capita.
North Macedonia has the highest number of deaths from pollution, followed by Serbia, Albania, Bulgaria, and Montenegro.
The main sources of pollution in Europe are coal power plants, car traffic, and the industrial sector.
