Greta Jimenez
The first effort to control pollution from automobiles was the positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system, which became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide by 1964. Since then, various emission control systems and devices have become more common in vehicles over time. For instance, since 1971, all U.S. vehicles have had fully sealed fuel systems that do not vent directly to the atmosphere. In the 1980s, three-way converters replaced two-way converters on most automobile engines. Another example of a universally adopted automobile pollution control technology is the catalytic converter, which became standard following the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First effort at controlling automobile pollution | PCV (positive crankcase ventilation) system |
| How PCV works | Draws crankcase fumes heavy in unburned hydrocarbons into the engine's intake tract so they are burned rather than released unburned from the crankcase into the atmosphere |
| First widespread use of PCV | By law, on all new 1961-model cars first sold in California |
| Year PCV became standard on all vehicles worldwide | 1964 |
| First legislated exhaust (tailpipe) emission standards | Promulgated by the State of California for the 1966 model year for cars sold in that state |
| First emission test cycle | Enacted in the State of California in 1966, measuring tailpipe emissions in PPM (parts per million) |
| First major Clean Air Act | Passed by Congress, requiring a 90% reduction in emissions from new automobiles by 1975 |
| Technology that became universally adopted following the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970 | Catalytic converters |
| Type of converters common until the 1980s | Two-way converters |
| Type of converters that replaced two-way converters on most automobile engines in the 1980s | Three-way converters |
| Year all U.S. vehicles had fully sealed fuel systems | 1971 |
| Year lead in gasoline was officially banned | 1996 |
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What You'll Learn
Positive crankcase ventilation
The PCV system works by utilising a series of hoses and valves to redirect crankcase gases back into the intake manifold or combustion chamber. During the combustion process, some gases escape past the piston rings into the crankcase, including harmful vapours such as unburned hydrocarbons and blow-by gases. If these gases are not controlled, they can lead to increased pressure inside the engine, resulting in oil leaks and decreased engine performance.
The first PCV systems were developed during World War II to enable tank engines to operate during deep fording operations without water leaking into the crankcase and destroying the engine. In the early 1950s, it was discovered that automobile engine pollution was a significant contributor to the smog crisis in Los Angeles, California. This led to the establishment of the California Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Board in 1960, which began researching ways to prevent blow-by gases from being released directly into the atmosphere.
By the early 1960s, the PCV system was mandated in California, followed by New York and, by 1964, most new cars sold in the United States were equipped with PCV. The system quickly became standard equipment on all vehicles worldwide, playing a crucial role in reducing air pollution from automobiles. Regular maintenance of the PCV system is essential to ensure optimal performance and minimise vehicle emissions.
A faulty PCV system can cause various issues, including poor fuel economy, rough idle, and excessive smoke from the exhaust. Therefore, timely diagnosis and repair are necessary to prevent further damage and maintain the environmental and performance benefits of the PCV technology.
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Hydrocarbons
In the 1950s and 1960s, various regulatory agencies were formed to study vehicle emissions and their effects on human health and the environment. During this time, it was discovered that photochemical reactions between hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides (NOx) produced many secondary pollutants that reduced visibility and caused eye and nose irritation in the Los Angeles area. This finding sparked national concern about automobile pollution, with California taking the lead in establishing the first new car emission standards in the 1960s.
The first effort to control hydrocarbon emissions from automobiles was the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system, which became standard on all vehicles worldwide by 1964. The PCV system draws crankcase fumes heavy in unburned hydrocarbons and burns them in the engine's intake tract, preventing their release into the atmosphere.
Over time, more stringent regulations and technological advancements have helped reduce hydrocarbon emissions. For example, the Clean Air Act amendments in 1990 limited the amount of sulfur in diesel fuel and imposed stricter standards for hydrocarbon emissions during gasoline production. Additionally, the use of sealed fuel systems in vehicles since 1971 has prevented gasoline vapors from escaping directly into the atmosphere, further reducing evaporative hydrocarbon emissions.
To monitor and enforce these regulations, various technologies have been employed. For instance, some US states use infrared and ultraviolet light technology to detect emissions from vehicles on public roads, eliminating the need for owners to visit a test center. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also plays a crucial role in developing sales-weighted emission factors and implementing new regulations to reduce harmful vehicle emissions, including hydrocarbons.
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Catalytic converters
Further development was carried out by engineers at the Engelhard Corporation, resulting in the first production catalytic converter in 1973. The first widespread use of catalytic converters was in the US market, with most gasoline-powered vehicles manufactured from 1975 onwards equipped with the technology to comply with the Environmental Protection Agency's new exhaust emissions regulations. Early catalytic converters were "two-way", converting carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water.
Three-way catalytic converters replaced the two-way variety on most automobile engines in the 1980s. This newer type added a separate catalyst to reduce NOx emissions ahead of the air pump, resulting in a less cumbersome and more cost-effective system. Four-way catalytic converters have also been developed, which remove particulates from engine exhaust, turning them into carbon dioxide.
The construction of a catalytic converter usually features a catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is typically a ceramic monolith with a honeycomb structure. In applications requiring high heat resistance, metallic foil monoliths made of Kanthal (FeCrAl) are used.
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Evaporative emissions
The first effort to control automobile pollution was the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system, which drew crankcase fumes heavy in unburned hydrocarbons, a precursor to photochemical smog, into the engine's intake tract to be burned rather than released into the atmosphere. By 1964, most new cars sold in the US were equipped with PCV, and it quickly became standard worldwide. However, this did not address the issue of evaporative emissions.
Since 1971, all vehicles in the US have had fully sealed fuel systems that do not vent directly to the atmosphere. In these systems, vapors from the fuel tank and carburetor bowl vent are ducted to canisters containing activated carbon, which adsorbs the vapors. During certain engine operational modes, fresh air is drawn through the canister, pulling the vapor into the engine, where it burns. This technology also appeared contemporaneously in other jurisdictions.
Modern vehicles are now equipped with Evaporative Emission Control (EVAP) systems, which capture gasoline fumes and other emissions produced when fuel evaporates within the gas tank or fuel system. The EVAP system then returns these vapours to the combustion process to prevent harmful chemicals from reaching the air when the vehicle is not running. The EVAP system also runs diagnostics for possible fuel vapor leaks and will trigger a fault code and activate the check engine light if a leak is detected. The EVAP canister is typically a plastic container filled with activated charcoal and connected to the fuel tank by a vent line.
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Federal regulation
In the United States, federal regulation of automobile pollution control began in the 1950s and 1960s, when various federal, state, and local governments conducted studies that attributed a significant portion of air pollution to automobiles. Initially, emission control regulations were promulgated at the municipal or state level, but these were gradually replaced by more comprehensive state and federal regulations.
The first effort at controlling pollution from automobiles was the Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) system, which was first mandated by law in California for all new 1961 model cars. By 1964, most new cars sold in the US were equipped with PCV, and it quickly became standard equipment worldwide. In 1966, California also enacted the first legislated exhaust (tailpipe) emission standards, which were followed by the United States as a whole in 1968.
The federal government established the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970, which now works with other state agencies to create and enforce emission regulations for automobiles. Over time, the EPA has implemented more stringent emissions standards and regulations to reduce air pollution from vehicles, including the National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act (NTTAA) and the Clean Air Act.
In 2023, the EPA adopted a final rule, "Control of Air Pollution from New Motor Vehicles: Heavy-Duty Engine and Vehicle Standards," which sets stronger emissions standards to further reduce air pollution from heavy-duty vehicles and engines. This rule includes amendments to the Clean Air Act and aims to reduce pollutants that create ozone and particulate matter. The EPA also recognizes the importance of zero- and near-zero-emission cars and trucks in reducing criteria pollutant and GHG emissions.
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Frequently asked questions
Catalytic converters became universally adopted following the Clean Air Act Extension of 1970.
Catalytic converters are used to reduce toxic emissions from internal combustion engines. They do this by converting toxic gases and pollutants into less harmful substances through a chemical reaction.
The adoption of catalytic converters became widespread in the 1980s, replacing the previously used two-way converters.
Other technologies include positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) systems, sealed fuel systems, and evaporative emission control systems. Additionally, the use of higher-quality fuels and improvements in engine design also contribute to reducing automobile pollution.
Various regulatory bodies, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), have implemented standards and regulations to control automobile emissions. This includes the establishment of emission standards for different types of vehicles, the Diesel Emissions Reduction Program, and the SmartWay Transport Partnership Program, which aims to improve fuel efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
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