Greta Jimenez
Pollution is a pressing issue that poses significant risks to both human health and the environment. It is a major cause of disease and premature death, with air pollution alone causing approximately 7 million deaths globally each year. The impacts of pollution are far-reaching, affecting people, ecosystems, and economic growth. While pollution is a global problem, low- and middle-income countries often bear the brunt of its adverse effects, with higher exposure to pollutants and higher mortality rates. Indoor and outdoor air pollution, water pollution, and exposure to hazardous chemicals and waste materials all contribute to the detrimental consequences of pollution on human health and the planet.
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What You'll Learn
Air pollution and health
Air pollution is a major threat to global health and prosperity. It is responsible for more than 6.5 million deaths each year globally, a number that has increased over the past two decades. Air pollution is a mix of hazardous substances from both human-made and natural sources. Vehicle emissions, fuel oils and natural gas used to heat homes, by-products of manufacturing and power generation, and fumes from chemical products are all sources of air pollution.
When we breathe in air pollutants, they can enter our bloodstream and contribute to coughing or itchy eyes and cause or worsen many breathing and lung diseases, leading to hospitalizations, cancer, or even premature death. Short-term exposure to air pollutants is closely related to COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high rates of hospitalization. The long-term effects associated with air pollution include chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality. Air pollution has been associated with oxidative stress and inflammation in human cells, which may lay the foundation for chronic diseases and cancer. In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization (WHO) classified air pollution as a human carcinogen.
The World Health Organization (WHO) reports on six major air pollutants: particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Ozone at ground level is created when pollutants, such as NO2, emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, and refineries chemically react in the presence of sunlight. Particles with a diameter of 10 microns or less (≤ PM10) can penetrate and lodge deep inside the lungs, causing irritation, inflammation, and damaging the lining of the respiratory tract. Smaller particles with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less (≤ PM2.5) can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream, affecting all major organs of the body. These pollutants increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases, as well as lung cancer and strokes.
The health risks from air pollution vary depending on age, location, underlying health, and other factors. Studies have shown that low-income communities and minority populations are disproportionately exposed to air pollution and are more vulnerable to adverse health impacts. Household air pollution, caused by the use of solid fuels (such as wood, crop wastes, charcoal, coal, and dung) and kerosene in open fires and inefficient stoves, primarily affects poor people in low- and middle-income countries. Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.2 million premature deaths each year, mostly in these countries.
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Water pollution
One of the significant contributors to water pollution is agricultural practices. The agricultural sector is the largest consumer of freshwater resources, accounting for about 70% of the world's surface water usage. Inefficient irrigation systems, inappropriate crop choices, and the use of pesticides and fertilizers contribute to water pollution and wastage. This has led to the degradation of rivers, lakes, and underground aquifers, with agricultural pollution being the primary source of contamination in rivers and streams in the United States.
Industrial activities also play a major role in water pollution. Toxic chemicals and waste from factories and manufacturing processes are often released directly into water bodies or seep into groundwater. This includes metals, petroleum by-products, and other hazardous substances. Oil spills, for instance, have devastating consequences for marine life and the surrounding ecosystems.
The impact of water pollution is far-reaching. It affects the availability and safety of drinking water, limiting access to this precious resource for billions of people worldwide. Water pollution also harms aquatic ecosystems, disrupting the delicate balance of marine life and reducing biodiversity. The accumulation of microplastics in marine wildlife, for instance, can have detrimental effects on human health through the consumption of seafood.
Addressing water pollution requires a multifaceted approach. While governmental policies and regulations are crucial, individual actions can also make a significant difference. Reducing plastic consumption, properly disposing of hazardous waste, and advocating for improved wastewater treatment practices are essential steps toward mitigating water pollution and protecting this vital resource for future generations.
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Impact on low-income countries
Air pollution is caused by harmful particulates and gases released into the air. It has been linked to premature death from heart disease, stroke, cancer, and acute lower respiratory infections. According to the World Health Organization, indoor and outdoor air pollution caused an estimated 7 million deaths globally in 2016.
The impact of air pollution is not equally distributed; it disproportionately affects marginalized and low-income communities. Globally, 7.3 billion people are directly exposed to unsafe average annual PM2.5 concentrations, and 80% of them live in low- and middle-income countries. Low-income communities tend to be exposed to unsafe air pollution levels and are more vulnerable to serious health impacts. In low-income countries, the nature of occupations and healthcare systems differs substantially from high-income countries, and the health and productivity implications of air pollution impact their socioeconomic development prospects.
In low-income countries, economies tend to rely more heavily on polluting industries and technologies. Less stringent air quality regulations, older polluting machinery and vehicles, congested urban transport systems, and rapidly developing industrial sectors all contribute to heightened pollution levels. Additionally, the lack of access to affordable, quality healthcare services further increases air pollution-related mortality. Within low-income countries, the most vulnerable populations include those living in slums or near busy highways, lacking access to clean cooking fuels, and those in specific occupations.
Indoor air pollution is also a significant problem in low-income countries, especially in rural areas. Due to poverty, people in these areas rely on burning wood, charcoal, or other materials inside poorly ventilated homes for cooking, heating, or lighting. This results in low indoor air quality, which has adverse health effects, particularly on women and children, who are often responsible for domestic tasks related to household energy provision.
Furthermore, in low-income countries, the impact of air pollution extends beyond health risks. It also hampers economic development. For example, low-paying jobs are often physically demanding and require outdoor labor, leading to heightened exposure to pollution. Pollution sources, such as industrial plants, are often disproportionately located in low-income neighborhoods, exacerbating the problem.
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Greenhouse gases
The energy sector includes emissions from electricity and heat, transportation, manufacturing and construction, and buildings. Residential buildings account for the largest share of energy sector emissions and 12.5% of all emissions globally. This includes emissions from generating electricity used in homes and from direct fossil fuel use, such as cooking with gas. Road transportation is another major GHG source in the energy sector, accounting for 12.2% of global emissions.
Agriculture is another significant source of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane and nitrous oxide. These gases are known as "super pollutants" and play a significant role in global warming, even though they make up a smaller share of total emissions compared to carbon dioxide. Most methane and nitrous oxide emissions come from agriculture, waste treatment, and gas flaring.
Industrial processes, including commercial and residential activities, also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. These emissions arise from burning fossil fuels for heat and using gases for refrigeration and cooling in buildings. Additionally, waste handling and other non-building-specific emissions contribute to the overall emissions in this sector.
Land use, land-use change, and forestry practices can act as a net sink or source of greenhouse gases. In the United States, for example, this sector offsets 13% of greenhouse gas emissions. However, deforestation and land-use changes can also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, impacting the climate.
The impact of greenhouse gases is measured through their "Global Warming Potential" (GWP), which quantifies how much energy the emissions of one ton of gas will absorb over a given time period, typically 100 years, relative to the emissions of one ton of carbon dioxide (CO2). Gases with higher GWP absorb more energy per ton emitted, contributing more to global warming. Greenhouse gas concentrations are measured in parts per million, parts per billion, and even parts per trillion.
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Clean air projects
Air pollution is a pressing issue that poses serious health risks for people and ecosystems, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. It is the leading environmental cause of disease and premature death, with 7 million premature deaths attributed to it annually. The Clean Air Fund is a notable organisation that supports clean air projects globally. They work with grassroots movements and governments to accelerate action on clean air through grants and projects that promote air quality data, raise public awareness, and influence policymaking.
The Clean Air Fund's global programme aims to raise awareness about air pollution among world leaders and global institutions, encouraging them to set higher targets for air quality. They have worked in countries like India, Bulgaria, Poland, and the UK, tackling issues such as outdated heating systems and poorly insulated buildings. The Fund also provides the only global analysis of international development funding for tackling air pollution, highlighting funding trends and making recommendations for strategic investment and collaboration.
The Breathe Cities initiative, delivered by the Clean Air Fund, C40 Cities, and Bloomberg Philanthropies, supports cities worldwide in reducing air pollution and climate emissions. It brings together data, communities, and city decision-makers to address urban air pollution. Additionally, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) focuses on integrating climate and clean air action into national climate plans. They promote actions to reduce short-lived climate pollutants, such as plugging methane leaks from oil and gas production, banning agricultural burning, and composting food waste, which have significant impacts on global warming, air quality, and human health.
The World Bank has also recognised the interconnectedness of environmental pollution, economic impact, and health. They are working to increase the identification of toxic sites and research their health and economic implications, aiming to empower officials to make informed decisions to mitigate the negative environmental outcomes of economic development activities.
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Frequently asked questions
Low- and middle-income countries suffer the most from pollution. Almost all of the global population (99%) breathe air that exceeds WHO guideline limits, with those in low- and middle-income countries suffering the highest exposures.
Exposure to smoke from cooking fires causes 3.2 million premature deaths each year in low- and middle-income countries, where polluting fuels and technologies are used daily for cooking, heating, and lighting. Women and children are affected the most as they tend to spend more time indoors.
Pollution is estimated to cost $6 trillion in annual global health costs, equivalent to nearly 5% of global GDP. It is also estimated that lead exposure may cost countries $6 trillion, equivalent to 6.9% of global GDP.
Greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to climate change. This results in rising sea levels, more extreme weather, heat-related deaths, and the increased transmission of infectious diseases. Additionally, industrial activities can lead to an increase in exposure to toxic materials and polluted lands. Certain communities, including low-income communities and communities of color, are disproportionately affected by climate change-related impacts.
