Meghan Hodges
Beijing, China's capital city, is known for its hazardous levels of air pollution. The city's topography, with mountains surrounding it, traps pollution within its limits. Various factors contribute to Beijing's air pollution, including industrial emissions from heavy industries such as coal power, steel, cement, and glass manufacturing in the surrounding province of Hebei. Vehicle emissions also play a significant role, with the number of motor vehicles in Beijing doubling to 3.3 million, contributing to nearly 70% of the city's air pollution. Other sources include population growth, manufacturing output, and seasonal weather patterns. The health implications of air pollution in Beijing are severe, with high pollution levels linked to shortened lifespans and various health issues. While Beijing has taken measures to improve air quality, it continues to face challenges in reducing pollution and improving the health of its citizens.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Economic growth | One of the main factors contributing to Beijing's air pollution |
| Motorized vehicles | 3.3 million, with nearly 1200 added each day |
| Vehicle emissions | 45% of Beijing's air pollution in 2018 |
| Population growth | N/A |
| Manufacturing output | N/A |
| Topography | Surrounded by mountains, trapping pollution within the city |
| Seasonal weather | Air quality worsens in spring and summer |
| Winds | Carry pollutants from industrialized southern regions |
| Coal power | N/A |
| Steel, cement, and glass manufacturing | N/A |
| Coal-burning | A large portion of the country's population is exposed to poor air quality from coal-burning |
| Secondary organic aerosols | Caused by the combustion of wood and coal in the winter |
| Traffic and industry | Dominant sources of pollution in the summer |
| Afforestation measures | N/A |
| Electric cars | China is the world's largest producer |
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What You'll Learn
Motor vehicles
Beijing's rapid motor vehicle growth has led to air quality challenges. Studies have identified mobile sources as one of the most critical factors in Beijing's air pollution. For instance, in 1995, vehicle emissions accounted for 76.5% and 68.4% of total CO and NOX concentrations, respectively, in Greater Beijing, and even higher percentages in downtown Beijing. More recent data from 2021 shows that the average daily emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOX), particulate matter (PM2.5), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) from motor vehicles in central Beijing are 17.7 tons, 0.6 tons, and 14.0 tons, respectively. These emissions account for 23% of the city's average daily motor vehicle emissions.
The high traffic flow in Beijing, dominated by small passenger vehicles, exacerbates the problem. The slow development of transportation infrastructure, particularly highways, hinders the mitigation of air pollution caused by vehicle emissions. The average velocity of vehicles on Beijing's main roads during the daytime is below 20 kilometers per hour, worsening the emissions from slow-moving traffic. Additionally, the adoption of electric vehicles has been slow, with only 72% of vehicles meeting "National V" or higher emission standards.
To address this issue, Beijing has implemented various vehicle emission control strategies and policies since the mid-1990s. The city has also upgraded fuel quality and emission standards, with the China V fuel standard expected to significantly reduce vehicle pollutant discharge. However, more urgent action is needed to reduce vehicle emissions and improve air quality in Beijing, such as implementing zero-emission or ultra-low emission zones for motor vehicles in the city center.
Overall, the rapid increase in motor vehicles in Beijing has significantly contributed to the city's air pollution. The high traffic volume, slow infrastructure development, and lack of electric vehicles have exacerbated the problem. Beijing has taken steps to control vehicle emissions, but more needs to be done to reduce the environmental and health impacts of motor vehicle pollution.
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Manufacturing output
The manufacturing sector in China, including areas surrounding Beijing, has been identified as a major source of pollution. The clustering of firms in these regions further exacerbates the issue, as evidenced by the high emission clusters in neighbouring provinces detected in wastewater discharge studies.
The Chinese government has recognised the impact of industrial emissions and implemented measures to reduce pollution. For example, power plants have adopted flue-gas desulfurization technology to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions, contributing to a decline in emissions between 2006 and 2008.
However, the effects of manufacturing pollution extend beyond local regions. Pollutants from Chinese manufacturing and exports, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, have been carried by global winds to other countries, including South Korea, Japan, and even reaching the United States.
To address the pollution caused by manufacturing output, China has invested significant sums. In 2013, China's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution, and overall pollution in China decreased by 10% between 2017 and 2018. Additionally, millions of homes and businesses are transitioning from coal to natural gas, and afforestation measures are being implemented. These efforts demonstrate China's commitment to mitigating the environmental and health impacts of manufacturing output pollution.
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Natural topography
Beijing's natural topography has played a significant role in shaping the city's climate and, consequently, its pollution levels. The city is situated at the northern apex of the North China Plain and lies at an elevation of 20 to 60 meters (66 to 200 feet) above sea level. The larger municipality is mostly encircled by the Hebei province, with the exception of two borders with the Tianjin municipality to the southeast.
Beijing's location in a lowland area, surrounded by mountains such as the Yan Mountains and the Jundu Mountains, has a substantial impact on its climate. The city experiences a continental monsoon climate, characterised by cold, dry winters and hot, humid summers. The mountains act as a barrier, influencing the wind patterns in Beijing. During the day, southerly winds prevail, while at night, the winds shift to a northerly or northwesterly direction. This wind pattern contributes to the accumulation of pollution within the city, particularly during the summer months when monsoon winds from the south prevent air pollutants from escaping the basin formed by the mountains.
The topography of Beijing has also made it a natural gateway for long-distance land communication routes. The city stands at the apex of a triangle, connecting the North China Plain with the northern ranges, plains, and plateaus. Several passes, such as Juyong, Gubei, and Shanhai, cut through the mountain ranges, directing roads from Mongolia and the Northeast towards the North China Plain and converging on Beijing. This geographical advantage has made Beijing a significant terminus for caravan routes throughout history.
The natural landscape of Beijing includes a mix of flat land and mountainous terrain, with the terrain being approximately 38% flat and 62% mountainous. The lowland areas have been extensively cultivated or settled, with minimal natural vegetation. The government has undertaken efforts to introduce greenery, including planting trees in and around the central city. Additionally, Beijing is home to several notable natural landmarks, such as Baihua Mountain, known for its rich biodiversity, and Nanshiyang Grand Canyon Forest Park, located at the foot of the Great Wall in the Western Hills. The city also boasts the Yeya (Wild Duck) Lake National Wetland Park, a nature reserve and an important bird habitat.
The natural topography of Beijing, characterised by its lowland location and surrounding mountains, has had a significant impact on the city's climate and pollution dynamics. The wind patterns influenced by the mountains contribute to the entrapment of pollution, particularly during specific seasons. While efforts have been made to introduce greenery, the natural landscape of Beijing continues to play a role in shaping the city's environmental challenges.
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Coal-burning industries
Beijing, China's capital and home to the Great Wall of China, has earned the dubious distinction of being one of the most air-polluted cities on Earth. The primary culprit behind these air pollution episodes is industrial emissions from heavy industries such as coal power, steel, cement, and glass manufacturing in Hebei, the heavily industrialised province surrounding Beijing.
China's economic reliance on coal-fired power and polluting heavy industries such as steel, aluminium, and cement is well-known. China's extensive network of coal mines, which already account for more than half of global production, has been working overtime to meet the country's electricity demands. Coal remains the backbone of China's flourishing economy, and the country's powerful leader, Xi Jinping, has affirmed that it will remain the "mainstay" of the Chinese power system for the foreseeable future.
The country's decarbonisation efforts have been hampered by its simultaneous pursuit of new coal-fired power plants, which local governments justify as a means to ensure energy security and avoid power outages. While China has made strides in electrifying its transportation and heating sectors, reducing carbon emissions, and increasing the use of renewable energy sources, these advancements have been overshadowed by the continued expansion of coal-burning industries.
The impact of coal-burning industries on Beijing's air quality is profound. Hazardous air pollution, particularly the concentration of PM2.5 particles, has rebounded after a decade of progress. The health consequences are severe, with air pollution causing approximately 1.85 million deaths in China in 2019 and reducing the average lifespan of Beijing's citizens by five to six years compared to those in southern China.
In summary, Beijing's air pollution, specifically from coal-burning industries, is a critical issue with far-reaching implications for the environment, public health, and energy security. Addressing this challenge will require a concerted effort to transition away from coal and towards renewable energy sources, as well as the implementation of stricter environmental standards and regulations.
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Seasonal weather
During autumn and winter, ozone (O3) formation intensifies due to favourable weather patterns characterised by higher temperatures, more sunshine hours, and higher boundary layer height and lower relative humidity. This results in increased ozone concentrations, adversely affecting air quality.
Beijing's pollution levels are also influenced by seasonal variations in industrial emissions. For example, coal-burning factories, which contribute to the city's smog, may emit more pollutants during colder seasons when energy demands for heating are higher. Additionally, certain industrial processes may be affected by seasonal changes, impacting their pollution output.
Furthermore, seasonal weather can influence the dispersion of pollutants. Unfavourable meteorological conditions, such as stagnant air masses or specific wind patterns, can trap pollutants over the city, preventing their dispersal and leading to the accumulation of harmful substances.
While seasonal weather patterns can exacerbate pollution levels in Beijing, it is important to note that the city has made significant progress in reducing pollution in recent years. The Chinese government has implemented stricter regulations and taken active measures to improve air quality, resulting in a noticeable decrease in various pollutants.
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Frequently asked questions
The main sources of pollution in Beijing are industrial emissions from heavy industries such as coal power, steel, cement, and glass manufacturing. Vehicle emissions are another major source, with the number of motor vehicles on Beijing's roads doubling to 3.3 million, contributing to nearly 70% of the city's air pollution.
Beijing's topography, including the surrounding mountains, traps pollution within the city limits. Winds also carry pollutants from industrialized southern regions, further worsening the air quality in Beijing.
The health implications of pollution in Beijing are significant. High levels of pollution have been linked to heart disease, strokes, lung cancer, and respiratory illnesses. Beijing's citizens have a shorter lifespan compared to those in southern China, with air pollution being a contributing factor.
Efforts to reduce pollution in Beijing include switching from coal to natural gas, afforestation measures, and the development of electric cars. Beijing has also implemented air pollution monitoring and invested significant sums to combat urban air pollution.
