China's Air Pollution: Where Does It Go?

China's air pollution is a major public health issue, causing around 2 million deaths per year. The main sources of air pollution in China are industry, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage. In 2012, China adopted the Ambient Air Quality Standard and began developing a national Air Reporting System with automated stations that monitor and report on six pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3), and carbon monoxide (CO). China has implemented policies to reduce air pollution, such as the 2013 Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, which targeted coal consumption and set goals for lowering PM2.5 levels. While some progress has been made, China still faces challenges in balancing economic growth with the social and environmental well-being of its citizens.

China's air pollution reaches California

China's rapid economic and social development has resulted in severe air pollution, which has had adverse impacts on its society and the environment. Air pollution in China is a major public health issue, causing about 2 million deaths per year. It is responsible for adverse cardiovascular, respiratory, and pulmonary health outcomes, including stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases. The immense urban growth in Chinese cities has increased the demand for consumer goods, vehicles, and energy, leading to a rise in the burning of fossil fuels and the formation of smog.

China is among the greatest emitters of air pollution globally, and its environmental impacts extend beyond its borders. Studies have examined the effects of intercontinental air pollution traveling from East Asia to the west coast of North America, including California. California is particularly vulnerable due to prevailing winds from the Pacific Ocean. Trans-Pacific air pollution from sandstorms in China has been shown to negatively affect air quality and health in California.

For example, in April 2013, a large sandstorm in the Gobi Desert, which borders southern Mongolia and northern China, led to a significant haze in Owens Valley, California. Additionally, traces of smog from mainland China have been observed to reach California. The timing of events such as the Chinese New Year and sandstorms can provide natural experiments to study the relationship between foreign pollution emissions from China and their impact on air quality and health in California.

While the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) currently focuses on domestic pollution sources, the impact of foreign pollution emissions from China highlights the need for a more comprehensive approach to addressing air quality and its associated health risks. California, with a population of 38 million people, is particularly susceptible to the health impacts of air pollution, including increased morbidity and mortality rates.

To mitigate these impacts, policymakers in California can plan for periods of worsened air quality following sandstorms or other events that increase intercontinental air pollution from China. Additionally, collaboration between the United States and China on environmental issues can help address the transboundary impacts of air pollution.

Stricter government regulations to reduce PM2.5

China's air pollution, a significant public health issue, has led to about 2 million deaths annually, with 1 million caused by ambient air pollution and another million by household air pollution. The main sources of air pollution are industry, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage.

In response to the air pollution crisis, the Chinese government has implemented stricter regulations and policies to tackle the issue. In 2013, the State Council issued the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (APPCAP), aiming to reduce PM2.5 levels by over 10% from 2012 to 2017. The plan targeted the reduction of coal consumption by closing polluting mills, factories, and smelters, and transitioning to eco-friendly energy sources.

The effects of the APPCAP have been significant, with a 33% decrease in average PM2.5 concentrations in 74 cities from 2013 to 2017. Beijing, the capital, saw a notable improvement, achieving a record-low PM2.5 concentration of 19.5 μg/m3 during the 2015 World War II anniversary celebrations due to temporary shutdowns of industrial facilities and reduced car emissions.

However, more ambitious policies are needed to achieve the World Health Organization's (WHO) standard of 10 μg m−3 for PM2.5 pollution by 2030. China has started to address this by implementing a supply-side policy of coal de-capacity, which includes reducing coal production, downscaling pollution in mines, and strictly regulating coal production. This has had a positive impact on PM2.5 levels, particularly in eastern and northern cities with heavy industrial bases.

To further reduce PM2.5 emissions, China can encourage the adoption of clean energy heating and high-efficiency central heating in the North region, improving emission-related laws and regulations for key industries, and implementing pollution-related taxes to ensure emissions remain within the standard.

The health impact of air pollution

Air pollution is a major public health issue in China, causing about 2 million deaths per year. It is responsible for a large fraction of damage to the health of Chinese citizens, with fine particles in the air causing respiratory and cardiovascular issues. The impact of air pollution on health varies by region in China, with higher education, income, life satisfaction, and long-term marriage associated with better health outcomes.

The Chinese government has taken steps to reduce air pollution, with the State Council issuing an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in 2013. This aimed to reduce PM2.5, the particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers in size, by over 10% from 2012 to 2017. Beijing, as the capital, has seen the most prominent government response, with a 25% reduction target. The plan focuses on reducing coal consumption and switching to eco-friendly energy sources. As a result, China has made significant progress, with a 40% reduction in harmful particulates from 2013 to 2020 and a 33% decrease in PM2.5 concentrations in 74 cities from 2013 to 2017.

Despite these efforts, air pollution remains a serious health threat. The smog that forms due to localised topography can linger in the atmosphere for days. The combustion of coal, fossil fuels, and biomass, as well as emissions from power stations and transportation, are major contributors to air pollution. The health impact of air pollution exposure has been widely studied, with a confirmed relationship between levels of pollutants and mortality, as well as cardiopulmonary, cardiovascular, and respiratory health issues.

Providing risk-related information about air pollution can help people understand the risks and take preventive measures. The development of models, such as the Information-Behavioral Equivalent PM2.5 Exposure Model (I-BEPEM), helps to project the health benefits of risk information on residents' protective behaviours. Changing the air quality standard to more stringent levels can also enhance the effectiveness of preventive measures.

The economic impact of air pollution

Air pollution has severe economic impacts in China. It is a major public health issue, contributing to millions of premature deaths worldwide each year, with 2 million deaths in China alone. This presents serious social, economic, and political problems. The health impacts of air pollution in China are significant, with 21% of the country's disease burden associated with environmental pollution—8% higher than in the US. This results in increased healthcare costs for Chinese residents and a greater economic burden on the government.

The economic costs of air pollution in China are substantial. According to a 2018 report, air pollution resulted in economic losses of up to 6.6% of China's GDP. Another study from the same year estimated a loss of RMB 267 billion ($38 billion) in revenue annually due to early deaths and reduced food production. The impact varies across provinces, with eastern provinces experiencing more significant losses from PM2.5 pollution and lower-income western provinces facing more severe economic burdens due to ozone pollution.

China's rapid industrialization and economic growth have led to excessive emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants. The burning of fossil fuels, industrialization, transportation, coal power plants, and household solid fuel usage are major contributors to air pollution. The Chinese government has implemented stricter regulations and policies, such as the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan, to tackle this issue. These measures aim to reduce coal consumption, shut down polluting industries, and transition to eco-friendly energy sources.

Despite these efforts, China still faces challenges in balancing economic growth with environmental and social welfare. The trade-offs between environmental protection and economic development are complex, especially for developing countries. However, progress has been made, with a significant reduction in overall pollution between 2017 and 2018. The average PM2.5 concentration in 74 key cities decreased by 23.6% from 2013 to 2015, and the amount of harmful particulates in the air fell by 40% from 2013 to 2020.

The reduction of sulphur dioxide emissions

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a harmful pollutant that is formed by the combustion of fossil fuels, particularly in power plants and industrial facilities. It is a major contributor to air pollution in China, which has become a significant public health issue. Exposure to SO2 can cause respiratory problems and aggravate heart and lung conditions, posing a serious threat to the health of Chinese citizens.

To address this issue, China has implemented measures to reduce sulphur dioxide emissions. One of the most effective strategies has been the adoption of flue-gas desulphurisation technology in power plants, which has contributed to a notable decrease in SO2 emissions since 2006. This technology removes a significant amount of SO2 from the fumes produced by burning fossil fuels. The Chinese government has also enforced stricter regulations to reduce air pollution, with the State Council issuing an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in 2013. This plan aimed to reduce PM2.5, a harmful particulate matter, by 10% from 2012 to 2017, with an even more ambitious goal set for Beijing, aiming for a 25% reduction.

The results of these efforts have been positive, with a 23.6% decrease in PM2.5 in 74 key cities between 2013 and 2015. The amount of harmful particulates in the air fell by 40% from 2013 to 2020, and average PM2.5 concentrations decreased by 33% from 2013 to 2017 in 74 cities. The overall pollution in China fell by another 10% between 2017 and 2018. These improvements have been accompanied by a lower frequency of acid rainfall, which is a consequence of reduced SO2 emissions.

Despite this progress, China still faces challenges in reducing air pollution. In 2019, China ranked as the 11th dirtiest country in the world, and emissions from power stations remain considerably higher than in other industrialised countries. However, the country is committed to continuing its efforts to improve air quality and protect the health of its citizens.

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