Kiera Jefferson
Pollution is a pressing issue that affects the health of millions of people worldwide. It is a major source of death, illness, and long-term environmental damage, with air pollution alone killing more people than all wars, murders, and other forms of violence combined. While pollution is prevalent in middle- to low-income countries due to poor pollution standards and industrial work, it is important to identify the most polluted places on Earth to address the issue and mitigate its impacts on human health and the environment.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of people exposed to air pollution above WHO guidelines | 9 out of 10 people |
| Global daily air pollution levels in 2019 | Exceeded 15 μg/m3, the safe threshold recommended by the WHO, for 70% of days |
| Annual deaths due to air pollution | 7 million |
| Primary sources of pollution | Residential (cooking and heating using biomass), electricity generation from fossil fuels, transport, industrial emissions, windblown dust |
| Pollutants | Particulate matter, ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, NOx, sulphates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, water |
| Most polluted cities | New Delhi, Lahore, and 11 other cities in India |
| Most polluted countries | Smaller nations geographically, including Pakistan |
| Action required | Stricter dust and emissions control, better traffic control, cleaner fuels, sustainable urban planning, public awareness, clean fuel adoption, better waste disposal practices, stronger industrial regulation, cleaner transport, better air quality monitoring, effective crop residue management, regular industrial checks, targeted awareness campaigns |
| Monitoring tools | Portable air quality monitors, real-time air pollution maps |
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What You'll Learn
New Delhi, India: the world's most polluted city
New Delhi, India's capital, is the world's most polluted city, according to the 6th Annual World Air Quality Report. The city's air pollution levels are over ten times higher than the World Health Organization's (WHO) annual PM2.5 guideline value. The situation has worsened over the last decade, with the winter months seeing a prolonged spell of intense smog. This has severe health implications for New Delhi's over 30 million residents, including neurological issues, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, reduced lung capacity, and cancer.
The primary sources of pollution in New Delhi are residential, with cooking and heating using biomass, as well as electricity generation from fossil fuels and transport also contributing significantly. The Indian government has implemented temporary measures to mitigate pollution, such as sprinkling water and restricting vehicle entry into cities, but these are seen as band-aids rather than long-term solutions.
The impact of air pollution on the residents of New Delhi is devastating. Shahbaz, a resident, describes the air as tasting "bitter", with constant coughing becoming a part of daily life. His wife, Noor, had to be hospitalised due to "excessive itching" in her eyes, a common issue for many residents. The pollution has also amplified social divides in an already unequal society, with wealthier residents able to afford cleaner air solutions that are out of reach for lower-income families.
The lack of decisive action by the Indian government has been criticised, with the country's air quality standards falling behind those recommended by the WHO. Climate change is also exacerbating the issue, with extreme heat events and wildfires contributing to the poor air quality. The situation in New Delhi highlights the urgent need for a transition away from fossil fuels and towards clean energy solutions to protect the health and well-being of the city's residents.
New Delhi's story is a cautionary tale for the world, as air pollution is a global issue that affects billions of people. It is important to recognise that air quality data saves lives, and addressing the root causes of pollution is crucial to improving the health and environment of affected communities.
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Lahore, Pakistan: high levels of PM2.5
Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city, is considered the most polluted city in the country, with high levels of PM2.5 atmospheric particulate matter. This pollution is caused by a combination of vehicle and industrial emissions, smoke from brick kilns, the burning of crop residue and general waste, and dust from construction sites. The loss of trees due to new roads and buildings also contributes to the problem. Winter air pollution is worse due to temperature inversion, which traps air pollutants in a layer of warm air.
Lahore's air quality has been described as ""unhealthy for sensitive groups", with a PM2.5 concentration deemed "unhealthy" by the US AQI. Pakistani authorities have been criticised for not publishing real-time PM2.5 data, and the Punjab AQI has been criticised as too lax, underreporting the severity of the pollution. As a result, three children took the issue to court in November 2019, and the US State Department began monitoring and publishing real-time PM2.5 data for Lahore.
The chemical composition of PM2.5 in Lahore has been studied to identify its sources and ways to mitigate the pollution. Primary emissions from local sources, such as industries and vehicles, are the main contributors to Lahore's PM2.5 levels. Controlling emissions from these sources would have an immediate effect on improving air quality. The fuel consumption situation in Pakistan has also been examined to identify major contributing sectors, with carbonaceous compounds being the most abundant species in the identified mass of PM2.5.
To tackle air pollution, individuals in Lahore can take steps such as carpooling or using public transport, and switching to greener fuel alternatives. Under the Punjab Green Development Program (PGDP) project, there are plans to establish 10 air quality monitoring stations in Lahore. Prime Minister Imran Khan has also stated that tackling air pollution is a priority for his cabinet.
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Residential pollution: cooking, heating, electricity
Residential pollution from cooking, heating, and electricity is a significant issue, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Around 2.1 billion people worldwide still cook using solid fuels such as wood, crop waste, charcoal, coal, and dung, as well as kerosene in open fires or inefficient stoves. This practice has severe health consequences, with about 3.2 million deaths attributed to household air pollution exposure annually. The leading causes of death related to household air pollution include ischaemic heart disease, stroke, lower respiratory infections, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Young children, people with asthma, and those with heart or lung disease are especially vulnerable to the harmful effects of indoor air pollution.
Cooking with natural gas stoves, for instance, can release carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, and other toxic pollutants. Wood stoves or fireplaces can also generate high levels of indoor air pollution from wood smoke. Additionally, cooking activities can produce unhealthy air pollutants from heating oil, fat, and other food ingredients, especially when cooked at high temperatures. Self-cleaning ovens, whether gas or electric, can also produce high levels of pollutants as food waste is burned away.
Heating is another contributor to residential pollution. The use of kerosene and unprocessed coal for space heating is discouraged by the World Health Organization (WHO) due to their polluting nature. Instead, cleaner alternatives such as solar, electricity, biogas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, alcohol fuels, and biomass stoves that meet emission targets are recommended.
Electricity generation and consumption can also impact the environment. The electricity system involves power plants, transmission and distribution wires, and end-users, forming what is known as the electric power grid. The environmental effects of electricity generation depend on the sources of generation, with some power plants burning fuel to generate electricity, releasing greenhouse gases and other air pollutants. However, it is important to note that electricity can also be generated from renewable resources such as water, wind, or solar energy, which have a lesser impact on the environment.
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Industrial emissions: NOx, ozone, carbon monoxide
Industrial emissions are a significant contributor to air pollution in many cities. NOx, or nitrogen oxides, are a family of gases that include nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and are produced by the combustion of fuels such as hydrocarbons, especially in car engines. These gases contribute to the formation of smog and acid rain and play a complex role in the greenhouse effect and global warming. For example, NOx emissions from ship travel may lead to a net global cooling effect due to the formation of hydroxyl radicals that react with methane. However, NOx can also react with other compounds to form toxic products and ozone, which can cause adverse health effects, particularly in vulnerable populations.
Ozone (O3) is a highly reactive gas that can be formed when NOx reacts with volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Ground-level ozone is a harmful pollutant and a key component of smog, which can cause respiratory issues and damage lung tissue. While ozone in the upper atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet radiation, ground-level ozone is a health hazard and can be transported by wind currents, impacting areas far from the original pollution source. The American Lung Association estimates that nearly 50% of the US population lives in counties that do not meet ozone standards.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas that is released during the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and gasoline. It is a significant concern in areas with high industrial activity and vehicle emissions. Carbon monoxide poses a severe health risk as it can displace oxygen in the blood, leading to headaches, coughing, and reduced outdoor activity. While carbon monoxide is not directly mentioned in the list of the most polluted places, it is a common pollutant associated with industrial emissions and vehicle exhaust, which are major contributors to air pollution in many cities.
Some of the most polluted places on Earth regarding NOx, ozone, and carbon monoxide pollution are those with high industrial activity and vehicle emissions. For example, New Delhi, India, has been named the most polluted city globally, with a concerning AQI (Air Quality Index) concentration. Other Indian cities also feature prominently among the most polluted, with 13 of the top 20 most polluted cities in the world located in India. This air pollution has severe health impacts, including respiratory conditions, cardiovascular diseases, and lung cancer.
To address these issues, several actions are necessary. These include stricter emission checks for industries, the adoption of cleaner fuels, improved waste disposal practices, and the implementation of sustainable urban planning. Additionally, public awareness campaigns and the development of advanced air quality monitoring technologies can empower individuals and organizations to take informed action to reduce their exposure and improve health outcomes.
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Ambient air pollution: health and environmental impacts
Ambient air pollution is caused by a number of air pollutants, including NOx, ozone, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide. The health effects of air pollution are diverse and ubiquitous, with evidence of causal relationships with specific diseases. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), about 9 out of 10 people are exposed to air pollution levels above the recommended guidelines. This has resulted in about 7 million deaths annually due to ambient or household air pollution. The health impacts of air pollution are further exacerbated by unhealthy lifestyles, with research indicating a significantly enhanced risk of death compared to those with general or healthy lifestyles.
The major components of particulate matter (PM) include sulfates, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust, and water. The most harmful particles are those with a diameter of 10 μm or less, as they can penetrate deep into the lungs. These fine particles, known as PM2.5, have been linked to increased mortality risk. Short- and long-term exposure to air pollutants have been associated with lung cancer, heart disease, and stroke. The social and economic impacts of air pollution are also significant, with increased sickness, hospitalization, and reduced life expectancy leading to lost productivity and higher healthcare costs.
Certain subgroups are more susceptible to the health effects of ambient air pollution, including those with pre-existing pulmonary diseases and those from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Genetic predisposition, life stage, and socioeconomic factors also play a role in susceptibility. During short-term episodes of high pollution, clinicians may recommend limiting outdoor activity, especially for vulnerable subgroups. However, the Air Quality Index, which takes into account the potential health impacts of daily pollution levels, is a useful tool for providing evidence-based guidance.
The primary sources of pollution in the most polluted cities are residential pollution from cooking and heating with biomass, electricity generation from fossil fuels, and transport. Windblown dust is also a significant source of pollution in parts of Africa and West Asia near deserts. Implementing policies and investments that promote cleaner transport, energy-efficient homes, and better waste management can help reduce outdoor air pollution. Access to clean household energy can also significantly reduce ambient air pollution in certain regions.
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