Helena Joyce
Pollution has been a problem in the USA since the Industrial Revolution, with air and water pollution in urban areas increasing well into the 20th century. The country has witnessed several major pollution incidents, including the 1948 Donora smog event, which caused 20 deaths and over 7000 illnesses, and the 1969 Cuyahoga River fire, which finally prompted nationwide action against water pollution. Despite legislative efforts like the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act, pollution remains an issue, with about 140 million people living in counties with pollution levels above the primary NAAQS in 2023. Climate change and natural disasters, such as wildfires, are also exacerbating pollution levels, particularly in the West.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Time Period | Late 19th century to mid-20th century |
| Cause | Industrialization, smog, waste dumping into water bodies |
| Region | Northeast, Ohio, Pennsylvania |
| Legislation | Clean Water Act, Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Air Pollution Control Act, Clean Air Act |
| Recent Trends | Ozone and particle pollution worsened in 2025, especially in the East |
| Recent Data | 66 million tons of pollution emitted in 2023, 46% of Americans live in areas with unhealthy air quality |
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What You'll Learn
Industrial Revolution
Pollution has been a problem in the United States since the earliest ancestors appeared. However, the Industrial Revolution marked a significant turning point, intensifying pollution and its adverse effects.
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the UK in the late 18th century and spread to Europe and North America, was a period of rapid economic growth and technological advancements. This revolution introduced transformative technologies, such as the steam engine, semi-automated factory systems, and mechanized manufacturing, which revolutionized industries and transportation. While these innovations brought about increased production and improved living standards, they also had detrimental environmental consequences.
One of the most notable impacts of the Industrial Revolution on pollution was the shift to manufacturing based on heavy industrial machinery. This machinery, powered primarily by fossil fuels like coal, led to a sharp increase in carbon emissions and harmful environmental pollution. The combustion of coal substantially increased emissions of SO2, NO2, NH3, and smoke, contributing to poor air quality in urban centres. As cities became more populated, they experienced a new kind of pollution from industrial waste and factory by-products. Rivers like the Cuyahoga in Cleveland, Ohio, became so polluted that the water erupted into flames on multiple occasions between 1936 and 1969.
The Second Industrial Revolution, or the Technological Revolution, which occurred from the late 19th to early 20th centuries, further exacerbated pollution issues. This phase introduced electricity, steel production, and the internal combustion engine, driving mass production and the growth of heavy industries. Countries like the UK, Germany, and France rapidly industrialized, resulting in exponential increases in energy consumption and resource extraction. Each phase of industrialization added to the cumulative environmental strain, causing significant increases in air pollution, deforestation, and greenhouse gas emissions.
The Industrial Revolution set the stage for large-scale carbon emissions and environmental degradation, the impacts of which are still felt today. It marked the beginning of our intensive use of fossil fuels, which has driven and continues to drive climate change and global warming. While clean air legislation, such as the Air Pollution Control Act and the Clean Air Act, has been enacted to address these issues, the United States continues to struggle with the adverse effects of pollution.
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Cuyahoga River fire, 1969
The Cuyahoga River fire of 1969 was not an isolated incident of pollution in the United States. In fact, the river had burned more than 10 times in the previous century, with the first recorded fire occurring in 1868. However, the 1969 fire became a pivotal moment in the history of environmental activism in the country. Located in Northeast Ohio, the Cuyahoga River bisects the city of Cleveland and feeds into Lake Erie. As Cleveland emerged as a major manufacturing hub, the river became heavily polluted by industrial waste. Oil and debris in the river made it highly flammable, and on June 22, 1969, it caught fire, causing approximately $50,000 to $100,000 worth of damage to two railroad bridges.
Initially, the fire attracted little attention, and local media coverage focused primarily on the damage rather than the environmental implications. However, this event marked a turning point in public perception. The image of a river that "'oozes rather than flows'" and where "a person does not drown but decays" captured the nation's imagination and sparked a wave of environmental activism. The fire also gained wider attention due to the involvement of Cleveland Mayor Carl Stokes, who was the first black mayor of a major city. Mayor Stokes held a press conference at the site and testified before Congress, urging greater federal involvement in pollution control.
The Cuyahoga River fire of 1969 had a significant impact on environmental legislation and policy-making. It contributed to the creation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (commonly known as the Clean Water Act) in 1972, which provided funding for improving sewage treatment plants and set limits on industrial discharges into waterways. Additionally, it spurred the establishment of federal and state environmental protection agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (OEPA). The fire also played a role in the passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, which prohibits the discharge of oil into navigable rivers.
The symbolic power of the Cuyahoga River fire as a representation of environmental degradation has endured. It has been referenced in pop culture, with appearances in songs and popular culture. In 2019, the American Rivers conservation association named the Cuyahoga "River of the Year", recognising the significant improvements in water quality over the past five decades. The river has undergone extensive cleanup efforts, and in 2025, the section between the Gorge Dam and its mouth was designated a National Water Trail, celebrating its transformation into a recreational space.
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Donora smog, 1948
The 1948 Donora smog, also known as the Donora death fog, was one of the worst air pollution disasters in US history. The incident occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, a small farming community located on the Monongahela River, 24 to 30 miles southeast of Pittsburgh. The town sits nestled in a narrow valley with cliff walls rising over 400 feet on either side.
Beginning on October 27, 1948, a temperature inversion occurred, trapping pollution in a layer of colder air near the surface. The inversion prevented the dispersal of pollutants from the U.S. Steel's Donora Zinc Works and its American Steel & Wire plant, including sulfuric acid, nitrogen dioxide, fluorine, and other poisonous gases. These pollutants mixed with the fog to form a thick, yellowish, acrid smog that hung over Donora for five days.
The smog caused respiratory problems for the residents of Donora, with many experiencing coughing and other signs of respiratory distress. Twenty people died during the incident, and approximately one-third to one-half of the town's population of 14,000 residents were affected. Another 50 residents died of respiratory causes within a month after the incident. The smog was so intense that driving became extremely difficult, and those who attempted to drive risked accidents. The incident also disrupted emergency services, with firefighters and doctors struggling to respond to the influx of calls.
The Donora smog had long-term impacts on the community. A 1961 study found that the rate of death from cancer and cardiovascular disease in Donora from 1948 to 1957 was significantly elevated compared to nearby areas. The smog brought attention to the need for industrial regulation and sparked a national conversation about the effects of pollution, leading to the creation of the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955, the first federal attempt to control air pollution. The Clean Air Act of 1990 further strengthened regulations by setting limits on the discharge of air pollutants from industrial facilities and motor vehicles and addressing acid rain and ozone depletion.
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Clean Air Act
The Clean Air Act is the primary federal air quality law in the United States, designed to reduce and control air pollution across the nation. The Act was initially enacted in 1963 and has been amended several times since, making it one of the country's earliest and most influential modern environmental laws.
The Clean Air Act authorises the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) to protect public health and welfare and regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants. The Act sets numerical limits on the concentrations of certain air pollutants and provides reporting and enforcement mechanisms. It also addresses emissions of hazardous air pollutants, including "major sources" and "area sources". The 1990 amendments to the Act revised Section 112 to require the issuance of technology-based standards for these sources, with "major sources" defined as those emitting or with the potential to emit 10 tons or more of a hazardous air pollutant per year.
The Clean Air Act has been instrumental in reducing air pollution and improving air quality in the United States. Since 1990, there has been an approximate 50% decline in emissions of key air pollutants, and between 1970 and 2006, carbon monoxide emissions fell from 197 million tons to 89 million tons. The Act has also led to significant reductions in other pollutants, such as nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and lead.
The Clean Air Act has been challenged in court by both environmental groups seeking stricter enforcement and states and utilities seeking greater flexibility in regulation. The Act has been amended several times to address emerging pollution threats and set new goals for achieving NAAQS, as many areas of the country have struggled to meet the deadlines. The 1990 amendments, for example, aimed to curb four major threats: acid rain, urban air pollution, toxic air emissions, and stratospheric ozone depletion.
Overall, the Clean Air Act has played a crucial role in improving air quality and protecting public health in the United States, demonstrating that clean air and a healthy economy can coexist.
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Racial disparities
While the worst period of pollution in the USA is hard to pinpoint, racial disparities in pollution exposure have been evident over the last few decades. Studies have shown that racial and ethnic minorities are exposed to higher levels of air pollution and suffer a disproportionate burden of pollution-linked diseases.
A 2022 study by Harvard University, in collaboration with the Environmental Systems Research Institute, found stark disparities in air pollution exposure among racial/ethnic and income groups in the USA. The study linked 17 years of demographic data with data on fine particulate pollution, creating visualizations that highlighted the disparities. The researchers found that areas with lower-income groups had been exposed to higher average PM2.5 levels than higher-income areas. They also noted that relative disparities in PM2.5 exposure had increased over time among racial/ethnic groups.
A 2024 study by George Washington University supports these findings, suggesting that communities of color across the USA are bearing a growing burden of diseases linked to air pollution. The study found that racial and ethnic disparities in cases of pollutant-linked diseases like asthma increased during the last decade. Senior Research Scientist Gaige Kerr attributed this to redlining and systemic racism, which have resulted in predominantly non-white areas being located near heavily polluted areas, such as factories and congested roadways.
The EPA also acknowledges racial disparities in pollution exposure. A 2021 study analyzed EPA data from the National Emissions Inventory for over 5,000 emission source types. It found racial/ethnic disparities for almost all major emission categories. People of color experienced greater than average exposures from source types causing 75% of overall exposure, while white people were exposed to lower than average concentrations. The study concluded that race is an important factor for exposure in nearly all regions, regardless of income level.
These disparities have been evident for several years. A study examining the two decades following the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments found that racial/ethnic exposure disparities remained across income levels, urban and rural areas, and all states for multiple pollutants in 2010. The racial/ethnic group with the highest national average exposure was a minority group, and disparities varied by state. For example, in 2010, exposures were at least 5% higher than average in 63% of states for non-Hispanic Black populations.
Overall, these findings highlight the existence of racial disparities in pollution exposure in the USA, with racial and ethnic minorities bearing a disproportionate burden of pollution-linked health issues.
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Frequently asked questions
Air pollution has been a significant issue in the USA since the Industrial Revolution, with air quality reaching its worst in the 19th century due to episodes of "smog" in cities like New York. Despite improvements in air quality over the past decades, 156 million Americans still breathe unhealthy air as of 2025.
As of 2025, about half of the US population lives with unhealthy levels of air pollution. Communities of color are disproportionately impacted by air pollution and are more vulnerable due to higher rates of asthma, diabetes, and heart disease.
The main sources of air pollution in the USA include transportation, power plants, and manufacturing, as well as wildfires. The highest amounts of lead (Pb) emissions in 2017 came from piston engine aircraft and ferrous and non-ferrous metals industrial sources.
The Clean Air Act, first implemented in 1963 and updated in 1970 and subsequent years, has significantly improved air quality by regulating and reducing emissions of harmful pollutants. The Act requires the EPA to reassess health risks and adjust regulations accordingly.
