Greta Jimenez
London's poor air quality has been a problem since the 13th century, when the burning of coal began to cause polluted fog. However, the seriousness of London's air pollution became undeniable after the Great Smog of 1952, a lethal smog that covered the city for five days, from December 5 to December 9. This unprecedented event brought London to a near standstill, resulting in thousands of deaths and prompting Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act in 1956, marking a turning point in the history of environmentalism. While the Great Smog was a pivotal moment in recognizing the dangers of pollution, London's air pollution had been worsening for centuries, with the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries contributing significantly to the problem.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First recognition of London's pollution | 13th century |
| First book written about air pollution | 1661, Fumifugium by John Evelyn |
| Major event in London's pollution history | Great Smog of 1952 |
| Cause of Great Smog | Combination of industrial pollution and high-pressure weather conditions |
| Duration of Great Smog | 5 days (December 5-9, 1952) |
| Clean Air Act passed | 1956 |
| Dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution | Coal burning |
| Other contributors to London's historic air pollution | Emissions of NH3 from large urban horse population, poor sewage treatment |
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What You'll Learn
The Great Smog of 1952
London's poor air quality had been a problem since at least the 13th century, with the burning of coal being a major contributor. However, the Great Smog of 1952 was an unprecedented event in the city's history.
From Friday, December 5 to Tuesday, December 9, 1952, a combination of industrial pollution and high-pressure weather conditions caused by an anticyclone and windless conditions led to a severe air pollution event in London. The emissions from factories, coal-fired power stations, and domestic fires, as well as vehicle exhausts and other pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, formed a thick layer of smog over the city. The absence of wind prevented the dispersal of pollutants, allowing them to accumulate to unprecedented levels.
The smog brought London to a near standstill, with major disruptions to transportation and ambulance services. Visibility was severely reduced, even penetrating indoor areas, and people were unable to see their own feet in some parts of the city. The smog had a significant impact on public health, with government medical reports estimating up to 4,000 deaths directly attributed to the smog and 100,000 people suffering illnesses related to the respiratory tract. More recent research suggests that the total number of fatalities was much higher, with estimates ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 deaths.
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The Industrial Revolution's impact
The Industrial Revolution, which began in the UK in the late eighteenth century, had a profound impact on London's pollution levels. The rapid growth of coal combustion in developing cities substantially increased emissions of SO2, NO2, NH3, and smoke. The dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution was coal burning, which expanded rapidly throughout the 18th and 19th centuries due to economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks. The increase in domestic fires and factory furnaces caused by the Industrial Revolution led to a surge in polluted emissions, resulting in the infamous London fog or "pea-soupers".
The Industrial Revolution accelerated the magnitude of emissions of primary pollutants and the geographical spread of contributing countries. By the 19th century, London's air pollution had reached a crisis point, with the spread of the Industrial Revolution and the rapid growth of the metropolis. The fogs in London, portrayed in the novels of Charles Dickens and Arthur Conan Doyle, could last up to a week, and fog-related deaths were reported on gravestones in the early 19th century. The situation worsened as the city expanded, and complaints about smoke and pollution increased in the 1600s, resulting in ineffective legislation under King James I to restrict coal burning.
The Great Smog of London in 1952 was a severe air pollution event that lasted from December 5 to December 9. It was caused by a combination of industrial pollution, high-pressure weather conditions, and windless conditions, which collected airborne pollutants, mostly arising from coal combustion. The smog caused major disruption by reducing visibility and penetrating indoor areas, leading to thousands of deaths and illnesses. The consequences of the Great Smog prompted Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act in 1956, which established smoke-free areas and restricted coal burning in domestic fires and industrial furnaces.
The Clean Air Act marked a turning point in the history of environmentalism and helped improve public health in Britain. While London's air pollution levels have declined since the peak of the Industrial Revolution, the absolute number of people dying prematurely from air pollution impacts has been increasing globally. This highlights the ongoing impact of the Industrial Revolution on pollution levels and the need for continued environmental regulation and improvements in public health.
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Horse dung and the 'great manure crisis'
The "Great Horse Manure Crisis" refers to the challenges posed by the excessive amount of horse manure on the streets of London in the late 19th century. By 1894, London, as the largest city in the world, was dependent on thousands of horses for the transport of people and goods. There were over 11,000 horse-drawn cabs and several thousand horse-drawn buses, with each bus needing 12 horses per day, resulting in more than 50,000 horses in total transporting people daily. In addition, there were countless horse-drawn carts, drays, and wains delivering goods.
On average, a horse produces between 15 and 35 pounds of manure per day, along with around 2 pints of urine. The manure attracted flies, which spread diseases like typhoid fever, and the carcasses of horses, which had an average life expectancy of only three years, often had to be removed from the streets. The streets of London were becoming a health hazard for its residents.
The problem of horse manure gained attention in 1894, when The Times newspaper allegedly predicted that "in 50 years, every street in London will be buried under nine feet of manure." This statement has since been refuted by The Times in 2018, and the original article is said to have focused on dust and mud rather than manure. However, the issue was significant enough to be discussed at the world's first international urban planning conference in New York in 1898, where no solution could be found.
The "Great Horse Manure Crisis" was eventually resolved not by urban planning but by the advent of motorised transport. The proliferation of cars, buses, and electrified trams replaced horses as the primary means of transportation in cities. Inventors like Gottlieb Daimler and Henry Ford played a crucial role in this transition. The price mechanism also contributed to the solution, as the rising costs of feeding and housing horses made horse-drawn transport less economical, creating incentives to adopt alternative modes of transportation.
The "Great Horse Manure Crisis" has become a well-known analogy for seemingly insurmountable problems that find resolution through unexpected innovations or shifts in technology. It serves as a reminder that even the most difficult challenges can be overcome with ingenuity and adaptability.
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The Clean Air Act
London has had poor air quality since at least the 13th century, when the burning of coal caused polluted fog. The dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution was coal burning, which expanded rapidly throughout the 18th and 19th centuries due to economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks.
The seriousness of London's air pollution became undeniable after the Great Smog of London in 1952, which covered the city in lethal smog for five days. The combination of industrial pollution and high-pressure weather conditions brought London to a near standstill and resulted in thousands of deaths. This prompted Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act in 1956, marking a turning point in the history of environmentalism.
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London's air pollution in the 18th and 19th centuries
London's air pollution has been a problem since at least the 13th century, but it was in the 18th and 19th centuries that the city became known for its frequent and severe fogs, a result of the burning of coal. The dominant contributor to London's historic air pollution was coal burning. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the coal industry in Great Britain expanded rapidly, driven by economic growth, an expanding labour force, and improved distribution networks. This led to a rapid increase in national coal consumption, with prices nearly halving between 1820 and 1850. The increase in domestic fires and factory furnaces meant that polluted emissions surged, causing the dense and yellow "London fog" that had become a hallmark of the city by the 19th century.
London averaged 80 dense fog days per year during this period, with some areas recording up to 180 in 1885. These fogs were often so dense that they halted railway journeys, interrupted economic activities, and even contributed to a rise in crime rates. The fogs could last a week, and fog-related deaths were reported on gravestones in the early 19th century. Air pollution deaths rose steeply during this time, with mortality from bronchitis increasing from 25 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants in 1840 to 300 deaths per 100,000 in 1890. At its peak, one in 350 people died from bronchitis.
The spread of the Industrial Revolution and the rapid growth of the metropolis further exacerbated air pollution in the 19th century. Water vapour would stick to particulates released by coal-burning factories, producing dark and heavy clouds that impaired visibility. This variety of fog, later known as "smog" (a merging of the words smoke and fog), was invented by a Londoner in the early 20th century. While the fogs became more infrequent in the 20th century as factories began to migrate outside the city, the Great Smog of 1952 was a crisis of unprecedented severity.
Lasting from December 5 to December 9, 1952, the Great Smog was caused by a combination of industrial pollution, a period of unusually cold weather, and high-pressure weather conditions. The smoke and fog brought London to a near standstill, with visibility so impaired that pedestrians could not see their feet. The smog resulted in thousands of deaths and prompted Parliament to pass the Clean Air Act in 1956, a turning point in the history of environmentalism.
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Frequently asked questions
London's poor air quality has been a problem since at least the 13th century, when coal burning was common. In the 1600s, complaints about smoke and pollution increased, and ineffective legislation was passed under King James I to restrict coal burning.
The Great Smog of London was a severe air pollution event that lasted from 5-9 December 1952. It was caused by a combination of industrial pollution, vehicle exhaust, and high-pressure weather conditions. The smog caused major disruption, reduced visibility, and resulted in thousands of deaths.
The Great Smog of 1952 brought attention to the seriousness of London's air pollution problem. It led to the passing of the Clean Air Act in 1956, which established smoke-free areas and restricted the burning of coal. The Act is considered a major event in the history of environmentalism.
